How Language May Be Saved in Its Folk Roots !

How Language May Be Saved in Its Folk Roots !

Indian Holocaust My Father`s Life and Time - Four Hundred Ten

Palash Biswas

http://indianholocaustmyfatherslifeandtime.blogspot.com/

The post Modern Zionist Order has picked up the Lanuages and Nationalities as targets of Deculturisation and Demolition worldwide. But the History has proved again and that Moteher Language may not be Killed any way. Normandy rule in Britain could not destroy English as English Adventure continues despite the Fall of British Empire. Bangladesh is the most modern example which was LIFERATED as the People of the country fought to save the Mother Language.British Peasantry helped the most spectacular survival of english lanuage amidst Plague stricken Nobility surrneder to the Imperialism. Monopolistic Aggressin and global Brahamin Zionsit imperialism face the greatest Challenges from Indigenous Aboriginal landscape which NEVER Deviated from its BASE firmly rooted in Folk!

The newest edition of UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger totes up 6,000 world languages -- and counts 2,500 as endangered and 200 as completely lost. The interactive atlas, released today, ranks the 2,500 endangered languages by five levels of vitality: unsafe, definitely endangered, severely endangered, critically endangered and extinct. This free, browsable resource complements a print version to be released next month. From UNESCO's announcement:

For example, the Atlas states that 199 languages have fewer than ten speakers and 178 others have 10 to 50. Among the languages that have recently become extinct, it mentions Manx (Isle of Man), which died out in 1974 when Ned Maddrell fell forever silent, Aasax (Tanzania), which disappeared in 1976, Ubykh (Turkey) in 1992 with the demise of Tevfik Esenc, and Eyak (Alaska, United States of America), in 2008 with the death of Marie Smith Jones.

The Adventure of English

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The Adventure of English
Format	Documentary/history
Created by	Melvyn Bragg
Starring	Melvyn Bragg
No. of episodes	8
Production
Running time	45–52 min per episode
Broadcast
Original channel	ITV
Original run	6 November – 30 November, 2003

The Adventure of English is a British television series (ITV) on the history of the English language presented by Melvyn Bragg as well as a companion book, also written by Bragg. The series ran in 2003.

The series and the book are cast as an adventure story, or the biography of English as if it were a living being, covering the history of the language from its modest beginnings around 500 AD as a minor Germanic dialect to its rise as a truly established global language.

In the television series, Bragg explains the origins and spelling of many words based on the times in which they were introduced into the growing language that would eventually become modern English.

Contents [hide] 1 Episode list 2 DVD 3 See also 4 External links

[edit] Episode list

#	Episode	Original Airdate
1	"Birth of a Language"	6 November 2003 (2003-11-06)
The modern Frisian language is the closest sounding language to the English used approximately 2000 years ago, when the people from what is now the north of the Netherlands travelled to what would be the United Kingdom and pushed the Celts to the western side of the island. Words like "blue" can be recognized in the Frisian language. Bragg then discusses how English dialects in certain areas of the United Kingdom were heavily influenced by historical events such as the invasion of the Vikings in the east, contributing words such as "sky" to the English language.
2	"English Goes Underground"	6 November 2003 (2003-11-06)
Bragg discusses how class also affected the use of English, especially in the time of William the Conquerer and for approximately 300 years after his reign; during this period, only the French language and Latin were used in state affairs and by the aristocracy, while English remained in use with the lower peasant classes.
3	"The Battle for the Language of the Bible"	13 November 2003 (2003-11-13)
In the early to mid 1300s, English fought to be the language of the Christian Bible through the efforts of theologian John Wycliffe, who opposed the church's use of a Latin scripture because it prevented most of the population from reading the bible for themselves. Though Wycliffe died before English became the official language of the bible, Bragg discusses how his translation eventually led to the transition of various Latin words into the English language, including "emperor," "justice,""profession," "suddenly" or "angel." Eventually, Henry V of England would use his power in order to create this English language bible in the early 1400s. However, the difficulty of creating a common language for all the English dialects in the United Kingdom had to be addressed since there was such an array of spellings and pronunciations. Bragg explains, "The '-ing' participle, as in 'running,' was said as '-and' in the North, '-end' in the East Midlands, and '-ind' in the West Midlands. So 'running' could also be said as 'runnand,' 'runnind,' and 'runnend.'" The number of spellings was even greater, Bragg offers sixteen different ways in which the word meaning "church" had been spelt at the time, including "kerke," "kirc," "chirche," "cherge" and "schyrche." The Chancery had the duty of creating an official spelling for each spoken word, much of which is still used in modern English. Still, the spelling was confusing because of the debates that went on during this period, for example many words wound up being spelt as to their roots like the words "debt" and "doubt" which came from the French language. The word "rhyme" was given an "h" simply because the word "rhythm" already had one. Around this time the Great Vowel Shift also took place, which altered spoken English from the Old English pronunciation to a more modern sounding form. The possession of an English bible had become illegal once more and William Tyndale left the country to write his translation of the bible from the original Hebrew and Greek version, which he published in 1526. Many of his sayings are still used today, including, "scapegoat," "the apple of mine eye," "eat, drink and be merry," and words such as "beautiful" and "zealous." Eventually, Henry VIII of England wished for the creation of an English bible and a new Church of England so that he could divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon. In time, King James I would create an official version of the bible which had become wide spread with various versions. This bible deliberately used words like "ye" and "thou," which were no longer in common use, to create the sense that the words written would appear to be ancient, to have authority.
4	"This Earth, This Realm, This England"	13 November 2003 (2003-11-13)
In Queen Elizabeth I's time, English began to expand to even greater depths. Overseas trade brought new words from France, as well as the now popular swearwords "fokkinge," (fucking) "krappe," (crap) and "bugger" from Dutch, in the 16th century. Sailors also brought all kinds of produce like apricots, bananas, limes, yams, cocoa, potatoes, port wine from Spain and Portugal, chocolate and tomatoes from France as well words from 50 other languages including "coffee," "magazine," and "alcohol" from Arabic countries. "The decade on either side of the year 1600 saw thousands of Latin words come into the English vocabulary of educated people, words like 'excavate,' 'horrid,' 'radius,' 'cautionary,' 'pathetic,' 'pungent,' 'frugal' [...]," states Bragg in this episode. The Inkhorn Controversy, a debate about the English language and where its new words should come from, soon followed. A few scholars, including John Cheke, wished that the language should not use Latin or Greek words to expand the English vocabulary, but rather Anglo-Saxon ones. English eventually obtained its own dictionary. Eight years before Italian and 35 years before French. However, this is a huge difference from the Arabic dictionary, which was made 800 years before and the Sanskrit, which was created nearly 1000 years before the English. Scholar Katherine Duncan-Jones informs on poet, courtier and soldier Philip Sidney, who also had a large impact on the English language, introducing phrases like "my better half," "far-fetched" and words such as "conversation," which had previously had another meaning. William Shakespeare's contribution to the English vocabulary is one of the most famous. Over 2000 words used in modern English were first recorded in his writing, words such as "leapfrog," "assassination," "courtship" and "indistinguishable." Shakespeare's vocabulary included over 21,000 words, his plays translated into 50 different languages, and Bragg states, "The Oxford English dictionary lists a stunning 33,000 Shakespeare quotations."
5	"English in America"	November, 2003
Upon landing in North America, settlers encountered Squanto, a native man who had been captured and brought to England to learn English and become a guide. After escaping, Squanto returned to his tribe, which happened to live near the place that the English settlers had created their small village. Among shockingly few other words, the settlers adopted "skunk" and "squash" into their vocabulary from the local language, making clear that they meant to impose their own culture, rather than adopt any other. English began to change, not only in meaning, with "shops" becoming "stores," but also with the variety of accents becoming considerably less in number than in England. In the last 18th and early 19th centuries, Noah Webster wrote what was known as the American Spelling Book, or the Blue Backed Speller, which would become one of the most influential books in the history of the English language, Webster's Dictionary. This dictionary created simpler spellings, eliminating the "u" in words like "colour" and "honour," reducing "axe" to "ax" and reducing double letters to single ones, like in the word "traveller," now spelt "traveler" in the United States. Words with "re" endings became "er," and other spellings changed include "defence," which became "defense." Interestingly, some words that England had dropped were kept in by Americans, such as "deft," "scant," "talented," "likely" and "fall" instead of the newer "autumn." Two-thousand words were created in journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition toward the West, including "rapids," which came from the adjective "rapid." New words to the English language, such as "hickory," "moose," "pecan" and "toboggan" are derived from Indigenous languages. "There are hundreds of names made by combining existing English words," states Bragg, such as "black bear," "bullfrog," "blue jay" and "rednecks," who got their name from the sunburned necks they got from working in the fields. Rednecks couldn't afford steamboat fare, they travelled the water on rafts, using paddles called riffs, and they became known as the "riffraff." Alcohol also added a great deal of words to the English language, "bootlegging" referred to hiding a flat bottle of alcohol in the leg of a boot. "And there were literally hundreds of terms from drunk," says Bragg. "Benjamin Franklin listed 229 of them minted in America, including... 'He's wamble-cropped,' 'He's halfway to concord,' 'He's ate a toad and a half for breakfast,' 'He's groatable,' 'He's globular,' [and] 'He's loose in the hilts.'" Irish settlers brought words like "smithereens," "speakeasy," "Yes, indeedy" and "No, sirree." Joseph McCoy had the idea to drive his cattle to trains and sell them to the Eastern states, creating a new meaning for the word "cowboy," and he made a lot of money in the process. Because of this, travellers would sometimes introduce themselves with his name, and in turn, he began to introduce himself as "the real McCoy." The Gullah language is a mixture of English and other languages that is thought to be the closest to the one that slaves, brought over from various countries in West Africa and the Caribbean, spoke in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Words like "banana," "zebra," "gorilla," "samba" and "banjo" were incorporated into English from the slaves living on plantations. The stripped-down grammar used in variations of English, like Gullah, is common when different languages come together. However, slave-owners took this to mean that they had lesser intelligence, when in reality their slaves were ultimately contributing words to the English language.
6	"Speaking Proper"	November, 2003
The Age of Reason began, and English scholars of mathematics and science like Isaac Newton started publishing their books in English instead of Latin. Jonathan Swift would attempt to save the English language from perpetual change, followed by Samuel Johnson who would write the A Dictionary of the English Language, made up of 43000 words and definitions, written in seven years and published in 1755. Though the upper and lower classes found no reason to change or improve their grammar, the middle class used it to their advantage in joining polite society. William Cobbett, a son of the lower middle class and writer of Rural Rides, advising those who wish to rise above their station that writing and speaking properly was essential. As English began to replace Gaelic in Scotland it took on its own character, using "bonnie" from the French "bon" and "kolf" from the Dutch for "club", the probable origin for "golf". Several other words came from Gaelic, including "ceilidh", "glen", "loch", and "whisky". Pronunciation became an issue all over the United Kingdom, as some sounds could be spelt in several different ways, while one spelling could have several articulations. Irish actor Thomas Sheridan wrote British Education, a book that attempted to educate all English speakers in the proper pronunciation of words. However, some Scots were offended that their speech might be considered second-class and the Scottish poet Robert Burns, son of a poor farmer, became the hero of the Scottish language. William Wordsworth also became a champion of the ordinary peoples' English, suggesting that poetry need not be written using haughty vocabulary. The turn of the 19th century marked a period when women were more educated and their speech and literacy improved. Novels were thought to be a frivolous occupation for females until Jane Austen wrote about the capabilities of such works in her own novels; her works were highly proper, often using words like "agreeable", "appropriate", "discretion", and "propriety". Then came the Industrial Revolution and the language that came along with it. The steam engine changed the meaning of words like "train", "locomotive", and "tracks" to be associated with the new technology. Along with this age came a change of social situation; the term "slum" came into use, and Cockney rhyming slang became a new form of speech for those in the lower class.
7	"The Language of Empire"	November, 2003
British trade and colonization spread the English language. In India, scholar William Jones finds some English words already present in Sanskrit. Convicts land in Australia, blending London criminal slang and Aboriginal words into a new dialect. Jamaicans reclaim patois.
8	"Many Tongues Called English, One World Language"	November, 2003

[edit] DVD

A DVD set of the mini-series was released on 2 June 2009 with an overall runtime of 405 minutes.

[edit] See also

• History of the English language

[edit] External links

• The Adventure of English at the Internet Movie Database
• The Adventure of English at Hodder Headline
• The Adventure of English at Films Media Group

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventure_of_English"

Categories: 2000s British television series | 2003 books | 2003 television series debuts | 2003 television series endings | 2003 in British television | Books by Melvyn Bragg | ITV television programmes | British documentary television series

The subtle and ruthless survivor

The Adventure of English by Melvyn Bragg leaves John Mullan wanting more authority and less vocabulary

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  • The Guardian, Saturday 15 November 2003
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Buy The Adventure of English at Amazon.co.uk

The Adventure of English
by Melvyn Bragg
354 pp, Hodder & Stoughton, £20

In a list of the 100 most commonly used words in English, reproduced early in this book, the first noun comes at number 30. It is "word". This tells you something about how much we speak and write about speaking and writing. In particular, we are always registering the ways in which language changes. Everyone sometimes feels like Jonathan Swift, whom Bragg records in 1712 worrying that English is decaying into modishness and incoherence. Yet our sensitivities are short-term, attuned to recent shifts in usage. A historian of English could have told Swift that he was wrong to believe that English was undergoing unprecedented corruption. His anxiety about new words such as "mob" and "banter" now appears absurd.

We are all amateur experts on language change, yet the history of the English language has long been an eccentric academic specialism. Separated in universities from the study of literature, it is sealed off even from those studying the writing of the past. For the general reader, it is - beyond a few platitudes about Chaucer's vernacular or Shakespeare's large vocabulary - terra incognita. This reader certainly deserves a good overview of the history of English, and is likely to have come across Bragg's excellent radio programmes on the subject. These, and a forthcoming TV series, are the basis of this history of English over the past 1,500 years.

Bragg is an expert translator in areas that academics find difficult to popularise. Here he is at his best where he feels least confident. On Shakespeare or Wordsworth or Austen, he repeats truisms (and shows himself to be, like Dr Johnson, too reliant on literature as a guide to the history of language). However, encapsulating academic knowledge of Old and Middle English he produces a pithy, accessible narrative. The language that would become English arrived in the fifth century with Germanic tribes as the Roman empire began collapsing. Bragg describes it in almost Darwinian terms, a "subtle and ruthless" survivor that defeated competing tongues over the next three cen turies, refusing to marry with the indigenous Celtic language (which has left us only about two dozen words).

At the end of the eighth century the Vikings arrived and a century later the Danes ruled most of England. King Alfred's struggle against them was linguistic as well as military. "Alfred had saved the language," Bragg declares of his defeat of the Danes at the Battle of Ethandune. He also sponsored a programme of translation of works from Latin into English. "No more than 150 words" were accepted from Old Norse into an Old English vocabulary of some 25,000 words.

Almost all those 100 most common words in English are from Old English. Three ("they", "their" and "them") come from Old Norse. The first French-derived word is the 76th most common: "number". Bragg suggests that commercial contact with the Danes encouraged Old English to lose its inflected word endings and express its meanings through word order - though this is really guesswork.

The next great shock to English was the Norman invasion of 1066. The country became divided between the French-speaking rulers and the English-speaking peasants. English survived, but absorbed over the next two centuries a flood of new words from the language of the conquerors. The black death of 1348, which killed up to a third of the population, weakened the hold of Latin among the educated, and when Richard II addressed the army of Wat Tyler during the peasants' revolt of 1381 he did so in English. At around this time, English replaced French in grammar schools. In 1399, when Henry IV deposed Richard, he spoke at his coronation in English, the first monarch since 1066 to do so. Under his son, Henry V, court documents would begin to be written in English.

Bragg is candidly an "amateur" narrator of this history. When he deviates from his scholarly authorities he admits that he is hazarding opinions and at least allows us to demur. Sometimes, however, his lack of expertise is a problem. Take the so-called "great vowel shift", which occurred between the late 14th and late 16th centuries. In this process the long vowels in English largely became the sounds that they remain today. In the time of Chaucer, "fine" would have rhymed with our "seen", "cow" with our "moo", "make" with our "park", and so on. English after this transition is immediately accessible in a way that Middle English is not; the sounds of Renaissance poetry are familiar while Chaucer is strange. Bragg tells us none of this, quipping merely that the great vowel shift "can take a lifetime to investigate and another to explain". Assuring us that academics are still busy studying it, he leaves the general reader none the wiser.

Now English was becoming Middle English, one of whose regional types was the language of Chaucer. As Bragg says, Chaucer is as remarkable for the variety of his language as for his characters and stories. In Chaucer's lifetime, John Wycliffe, an Oxford scholar, was organising the translation of the Bible into English in hundreds of manuscript copies and its dissemination by Lollard preachers.

It was only with the arrival of printing in the 15th century that there could be a standard English. The Bible was to be the most powerful influence on the language, and its most important translator was William Tyndale, rightly a hero of Bragg's story. Unlike Wycliffe, Tyndale did not doggedly follow the Latin of the Vulgate, but returned to the Bible's original Greek and Hebrew. His translation is beneath the King James Bible of 1611, but often seems more direct and exact in its English. The King James serpent tells Eve: "Ye shall not surely die". Tyndale's serpent brushes aside Eve's repetition of God's warning with: "Tush ye shall not die". Tyndale coined most of those hundreds of Biblical phrases that live on: the apple of his eye; filthy lucre; let there be light.

When we get to the Renaissance, Bragg revels in the heady importation and coining of new words, but thereby reveals a weakness in his account. Language for him is mostly vocabulary; his book is full of lists of words, where they came from and when they arrived. Other historical aspects of English - such as changes in syntax, the influence of rhetoric, patterns of formality, or punctuation - are hardly broached. Reasonably enough, he concentrates on the history of English as spoken and written in what we now call Britain. He does depart for America, noting the new idiomatic life that Americans gave to English in the 19th century, and he rapidly sketches the roles of English in India and the West Indies. As he approaches the present the narrative becomes more diffuse and less satisfying.

The origins of this history as a TV series are rather too evident. Sometimes declarations of the author's feelings about some of his evidence make it sound like a script rather than a book. And perhaps we do sometimes need to hear from the experts. At the book's conclusion, Bragg wonders where English is going and gives (without attribution) a recent passage from the Guardian in text-message English. Is this the future? Well, probably not because I realised that it was a ham-fisted parody that I had written myself. Now I knew that this book's authority was not beyond question.

· John Mullan is senior lecturer in English at University College London.

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Atlas on Endangered Languages

The 'Atlas on-line' will serve as an ever-evolving electronic extension to the print publication, under Initiative B@bel.

The 'Atlas on-line' main objectives are:

• Safeguarding languages in danger of disappearing in order to contribute to the preservation of the world's linguistic and cultural diversity;
  
  
• Sharing knowledge on endangered languages in cyberspace through the use of information and communication technologies (ICT);
  
  
• Promoting public awareness and international debate concerning languages in danger of disappearing through the development of an interactive on-line space;
  
  
• Fostering intellectual cooperation with local, regional, national and international partners in order to combine efforts to promote and preserve the world's endangered languages.

Why preserve language diversity?

According to our estimate there are about 6,000 languages spoken in the world today, most of them in several dialects. We know of many languages that are no longer spoken, in other words, that have become extinct and are dead. Only a few of those, such as Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit, have been kept alive artificially. However, many languages have disappeared without being known to us in any great detail, with only some fragmentary materials in them at our disposal to give us some idea as to what those languages were like. Others have disappeared without even the scanty information about their nature being available to us; only their names are known from historical records. Many other languages have disappeared without our knowing anything of or about them.

Each language reflects a unique world-view and culture complex, mirroring the manner in which a speech community has resolved its problems in dealing with the world, and has formulated its thinking, its system of philosophy and understanding of the world around it. In this, each language is the means of expression of the intangible cultural heritage of a people, and it remains a reflection of this culture for some time even after the culture which underlies it decays and crumbles, often under the impact of an intrusive, powerful, usually metropolitan, different culture. However, with the death and disappearance of such a language, an irreplaceable unit in our knowledge and understanding of human thought and world-view is lost forever.

The dying and disappearance of languages have been going on for thousands of years as a natural event in human society but at a slow rate. This trend sometimes increased locally for a short period of time, for instance when a powerful conquering group attacked and killed off certain small community speaking a variety of different languages.

However, the past three hundred years have seen a dramatic increase in the death and disappearance of languages leading to the situation today in which 3,000 or more languages that are still spoken are endangered, seriously endangered or dying, with many other still viable languages already showing signs of being potentially endangered and soon entering in the phase where they will be endangered and will face disappearance.

How do languages become endangered?

Basically, the language of any community that is no longer learned by children, or at least by a large part of the children community of that community (at least 30 per cent), should be regarded as 'endangered' or 'potentially endangered'. But a language can become 'endangered' for other reasons even if it has child speakers. The main situations in which a language becomes 'endangered' and threatens to disappear can be synthesising as following:

• The forceful splitting up and transplanting of the speech community that speaks a given language, putting small groups or even only individuals of the speech community into communities that use another language;
  
  
• The face-to-face contact between a particular speech community and a more aggressive culture, who speak another, usually metropolitan, language;
  
  
• The actions of people of a dominant culture that lead to the destruction of the environment, habitat and livelihood of the speakers of local languages;
  
  
• The natural catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions, floods, wildfires, new devastating diseases and epidemics resulting from contacts between speaker of local languages and those of a dominant culture, where the former have no resistance to diseases.

In the discussion of language endangerment, an important factor is the number of speakers of a given language. Languages spoken by a large group are less vulnerable to the danger of disappearing than others. However, the problem here is that the question of large or small numbers of speakers is quite relative and is determinated by the number of speakers of surrounding languages who are culturally aggressive.

Preventing language disappearance

There are many examples of the reasons that we have given above for language endangerment. The paradox is that the way to prevent a language from becoming 'endangered' would be to promote bi- or multi-lingualism, which is already the norm in many parts of the world. Bi- and multi- lingualism make it possible for speakers of languages under threat from languages spoken by bearers of aggressive cultures and civilizations to acquire a good knowledge of the latter for economic and other reasons, while maintaining a good knowledge of their original languages. This allows them to preserve their cultural and traditional identity and maintain their own self-respect and self-esteem. Even if bi- and multi- lingualism are the most advantageous quality any person can possess, they are not encouraged in most of the major cultures, the speakers of whose languages regard monolingualism as the norm and the preferred state for human language.

The urgent world situation concerning languages in danger of disappearing prompted UNESCO to focus its attention on the protection and preservation of endangered languages. In this sense, one of the Organization's responses is the implementation of this interactive online extension to the 'Atlas of languages in danger of disappearing' within the framework of the UNESCO's 'Initiative B@bel' project.

In its first phase, the 'Atlas on-line' includes only content about seriously endangered and moribund languages of Africa. This continent, designated as an UN-wide priority, constitutes the least known region from a linguistic point of view and it has the highest number of languages in danger of rapid disappearance, amongst its approximately 1400 languages, at least 250 are threatened of disappearance and 500 to 600 on the decline. In further phases, the 'Atlas on-line will also include content concerning other regions of the world.

http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16548&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

Language Movement Day

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The Shaheed Minar monument commemorates the Bengali Language Movement.

Language Movement Day or Language Revolution Day (ভাষা আন্দোলন দিবস Bhasha Andolon Dibosh), which is also referred to as Language Martyrs' Day or Martyrs' Day (শহীদ দিবস Shohid Dibosh), is a national day of Bangladesh to commemorate protests and sacrifices to protect Bangla as a national language during Bengali Language Movement of 1952.

Contents [hide] 1 Background 2 Protest 3 Effects 4 Commemoration 5 See also 5.1 External links

[edit] Background

Around 1950-52, the emerging middle classes of East Bengal underwent an uprising known later as the Bangla Language Movement. Bangladeshis (then East Pakistanis) were initially agitated by a decision by the Central Pakistan Government to establish Urdu, a minority language spoken only by the supposed elite class of West Pakistan, as the sole national language for all of Pakistan. The situation was worsened by an open declaration that "Urdu and only Urdu will be the national language of Pakistan" by the governor, Khawaja Nazimuddin.

[edit] Protest

Police declared Section 144 which banned any sort of meeting. Defying this, the students of University of Dhaka and Dhaka Medical College and other political activists started a procession in February 21, 1952. Near the current Dhaka Medical College Hospital, police fired on the protesters and numerous people, including Abdus Salam, Rafiq Uddin Ahmed, Sofiur Rahman, Abul Barkat and Abdul Jabbar, died.

The movement spread to the whole of East Pakistan and the whole province came to a standstill. Afterwards, the Government of Pakistan relented and gave Bangla equal status as a national language.

[edit] Effects

This movement is thought to have sown the seeds for the independence movement which resulted in the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971.

[edit] Commemoration

To commemorate this movement, Shaheed Minar (শহীদ মিনার), a solemn and symbolic sculpture, was erected in the place of the massacre. The day is revered in Bangladesh and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in West Bengal as the Martyrs' Day.

UNESCO decided to observe 21 February as International Mother Language Day. The UNESCO General Conference took a decision to that took effect on 17 November 1999 when it unanimously adopted a draft resolution submitted by Bangladesh and co-sponsored and supported by 28 other countries.

[edit] See also

• Bangladesh
• Bengal
• Bengali language
• International Mother Language Day
• West Bengal

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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_Movement_Day"

Categories: February observances | History of Bangladesh | Bangladesh Liberation War

Peasants' Revolt

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For other peasant revolts, see List of peasant revolts.

Richard II meets the rebels in a painting from Froissart's Chronicles

The end: Wat Tyler killed by Walworth while Richard II watches / Richard addresses the crowd

The Peasants' Revolt, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, or the Great Rising of 1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a major event in the history of England. Tyler's Rebellion was not only the most extreme and widespread insurrection in English history but also the best-documented popular rebellion ever to have occurred during medieval times. The names of some of its leaders, John Ball, Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, are still familiar in popular culture although little is known of them.

The revolt later came to be seen as a mark of the beginning of the end of serfdom in medieval England, although the revolt itself was a failure. It increased awareness in the upper classes of the need for the reform of feudalism in England and the appalling misery felt by the lower classes as a result of their enforced slavery.

Contents [hide] 1 Events leading to the revolt 1.1 The poll tax 1.2 Labour shortage 1.3 How the revolt was triggered 2 First protests 3 Storming the Tower of London 4 Smithfield 5 Conclusion 6 Literary mention 7 Further reading 8 Footnotes

[edit] Events leading to the revolt

[edit] The poll tax

The revolt was precipitated by heavy-handed attempts to enforce the third poll tax, first levied in 1377 supposedly to finance military campaigns overseas — a continuation of the Hundred Years' War initiated by King Edward III of England. The third poll tax was not levied at a flat rate (as in 1377) nor according to schedule^{[clarification needed]} (as in 1379); instead it allowed some of the poor to pay a reduced rate, while others who were equally poor had to pay the full tax, prompting calls of injustice. The tax was set at 3 groats (equivalent to 12 pence or 1 shilling) compared with the 1377 rate of 1 groat (4 pence). The youth of King Richard II (aged only 14) was another reason for the uprising: a group of unpopular men dominated his government. These included John of Gaunt (the acting regent), Simon Sudbury (Lord Chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury, who was the figurehead to what many then saw as a corrupt Church) and Sir Robert Hales (the Lord Treasurer, responsible for the poll tax). Many saw them as corrupt officials, trying to exploit the weakness of the King.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Labour shortage

The Black Death that ravaged England in 1348 to 1350 had greatly reduced the labour force, and consequently the surviving labourers could demand higher wages and fewer hours of work. Some asked for their freedom. They often got what they asked for: the lords of the manors were desperate for people to farm their land and tend their animals. Then, in 1351, King Edward III summoned parliament to pass the Statute of Labourers. The Statute attempted to curb the demands for better terms of employment by pegging wages to pre-plague levels and restricting the mobility of labour; however the probable effect was that labourers employed by lords were effectively exempted, while labourers working for other employers, both artisans and more substantial peasants, were liable to be fined or held in the stocks. The enforcement of the new law angered the peasants greatly and formed another reason for the revolt.

[edit] How the revolt was triggered

Incidents in the Essex villages of Fobbing ^[1] and Brentwood triggered the uprising. On 30 May 1381, John^[2] or Thomas^[3] Bampton^[4] attempted to collect the poll tax from villagers at Fobbing. The villagers, led by Thomas Baker, a local landowner, told Bampton that they would give him nothing, and he was forced to leave the village empty-handed. Robert Belknap (Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas) was sent to investigate the incident and to punish the offenders. On 2 June, he was attacked at Brentwood. By this time the violent discontent had spread, and the counties of Essex and Kent were in full revolt. Soon people moved on London in an armed uprising.^[5]

[edit] First protests

In June 1381, Kentish rebels formed behind Wat Tyler and marched on London to join the Essex contingent. When the Kentish rebels arrived at Blackheath on June 12, the renegade Lollard priest, John Ball, preached a sermon including the famous question that has echoed down the centuries: "When Adam delved and Eve span, who was then the gentleman?"^[6] The following day the rebels, encouraged by the sermon, crossed London Bridge into the heart of the city. Meanwhile the 'Men of Essex' had gathered with Jack Straw at Great Baddow and had marched on London, arriving at Stepney. Instead of a full-scale riot, there were only systematic attacks on certain properties, many of them associated with John of Gaunt and/or the Hospitaller Order. On June 14, the rebels are reputed to have been met by the young king himself, and, led by Richard of Wallingford, to have presented him with a series of demands, including the dismissal of some of his more unpopular ministers and the effective abolition of serfdom. One of the more intriguing demands of the peasants was "that there should be no law within the realm save the law of Winchester". This may refer to the statutes of the Charter of Winchester (1251), though it is sometimes considered to be a reference to the more equitable days of King Alfred the Great, when Winchester was the capital of England.

[edit] Storming the Tower of London

At the same time, a group of rebels stormed the Tower of London and summarily executed those hiding there, including the Lord Chancellor (Simon of Sudbury, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who was particularly associated with the poll tax), and the Lord Treasurer (Robert de Hales, the Grand Prior of the Knights Hospitallers of England). The Savoy Palace of the king's uncle John of Gaunt was one of the London buildings destroyed by the rioters.

[edit] Smithfield

At Smithfield on the following day, further negotiations with the king were arranged, but on this occasion the meeting did not go according to plan. Wat Tyler rode ahead to talk to the King and his party. Tyler, it is alleged by the the kings chroniclers, behaved most belligerently and dismounted his horse and called for a drink most rudely. In the ensuing dispute, Tyler (supposedly) drew his dagger and William Walworth, the Lord Mayor of London, drew his sword and attacked Tyler, mortally wounding him in the neck; Sir John Cavendish, one of the King's knights, drew his sword and ran it through Tyler's stomach, killing him almost instantly. Seeing him surrounded by the King's entourage, the rebel army was in uproar, but King Richard, seizing the opportunity, rode forth and shouted "You shall have no captain but me",^[7] a statement left deliberately ambiguous to defuse the situation. He promised the rebels that all was well, that Tyler had been knighted, and that their demands would be met - they were to march to St John's Fields, where Wat Tyler would meet them. This they duly did, but the King broke his promise. The nobles quickly re-established their control with the help of a hastily organised militia of 7000, and most of the other leaders were pursued, captured and executed, including John Ball and Jack Straw, who was beheaded. Following the collapse of the revolt, the king's concessions were quickly revoked.

[edit] Conclusion

Despite its name, participation in the Peasants' Revolt was not confined to serfs or even to the lower classes. The peasants received help from members of the noble classes - one example being William Tonge, a substantial alderman, who opened the London city gate through which the masses streamed on the night of June 12.^[8] Although the most significant events took place in the capital, there were violent encounters throughout England, particularly in East Anglia. The last battle of the revolt took place near North Walsham around 23rd June, when the 'Fighting Bishop' Henry le Despenser soundly defeated a rebel force led by Geoffrey Litster. Those involved hastened to dissociate themselves in the months that followed.

Although the Revolt did not succeed in its stated aims, it did succeed in showing the nobles that the peasants were dissatisfied and that they were capable of wreaking havoc. In the longer term, the Revolt helped to form a radical tradition in British politics (a development explained by Christopher Hampton, see further reading). After the revolt, the term 'poll tax' was no longer used, although English governments continued to collect broadly similar taxes until the 17th century. The Community Charge, introduced 600 years after the peasants revolt, was popularly known as the poll tax (particularly by its opponents).

[edit] Literary mention

Title page to William Morris' A Dream of John Ball (1888)

Geoffrey Chaucer mentions Jack Straw, one of the leaders of the Revolt, in his satiric The Nun's Priest's Tale in The Canterbury Tales.

Froissart's Chronicles devotes 20 pages to the revolt.

The revolt is featured prominently in the climax of Anya Seton's historical novel, Katherine (novel) (1954). The main character, Katherine Swynford survives the destruction of Savoy Palace.

John Gower, a friend of Geoffrey Chaucer, saw the peasants as unjustified in their cause. In his Vox Clamantis, he sees the peasant action as the work of the Anti-Christ and a sign of evil prevailing over virtue, writing "....according to their foolish ideas there would be no lords, but only kings and peasants...".

William Morris described the revolt in A Dream of John Ball (1888).

Singer-songwriter Frank Turner wrote Sons of Liberty on his album Poetry of the Deed about the Revolt.

[edit] Further reading

• R. B. Dobson, editor, (2002), The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 (History in Depth) ISBN 0-333-25505-4; a collection of source materials
• Alastair Dunn (2002), The Great Rising of 1381: The Peasant's Revolt and England's Failed Revolution, ISBN 0-7524-2323-1
• Charles Oman (1906), The Great Revolt of 1381; a classic account
• Andrew Godsell (2008) "The Peasants' Revolt and the Radical Tradition" in Legends of British History
• P. J. P. Goldberg (2004), Medieval England 1250-1550: A Social History, ISBN 0-340-57745-2; Chapter 13 is devoted to the Peasants' Revolt
• Christopher Hampton (1984) A Radical Reader: The Struggle for Change in England, 1381-1914
• John J. Robinson, (1990), Born in Blood: The Lost Secrets of Freemasonry ISBN 0-87131-602-1; Chapters 1-5 concern the Peasants' Revolt. It makes a (somewhat speculative) case for a Knights Templar connection, tracing some Revolt features (eg, the names of leaders, especially Wat Tyler, the special targets of the destruction in London, etc) to traditions surviving the suppression of that Order, and its destruction on the Continent, a few generations earlier
• A contemporary chronicle, the final meeting of king Richard II and the leader of the Peasants' Revolt Wat Tyler.
• "The Peasants' Revolt" Voices of the powerless - readings from original sources BBC Radio programme, Thursday 25 July 2002, 9.02 am - 9.30 am.
• Britannia: The History of the Peasants' Revolt by Jeff Hobbs with useful bibliography
• "Wat Tyler's Rebellion", from The Chronicles of Froissart, , pp 61–63 includes John Ball's speech.
• "King Richard punishes the rebels in Kent" from The Chronicles of Froissart, edited by Steve Muhlberger, Nipissing University.
• A Dream of John Ball; and, a King's Lesson by William Morris (Project Gutenberg etext)
• "Conflagration: The Peasants' Revolt", by Melissa Snell.
• Fire, Bed & Bone, by Henrietta Branford, is a children's book looking at the peasants' revolt from the viewpoint of one of the participants' dogs.

[edit] Footnotes

1. ^ ::Peasants Revolt::
2. ^ http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/citizen_subject/peasant.htm
3. ^ http://marxists.anu.edu.au/history/england/peasants-revolt/story.htm
4. ^ The Anonimalle Chronicle says "une Thomas de Bamptoun"[1]. Some authors (eg Vivian Hunter Galbraith in A R Myers (ed), English Historical Documents 1327-1485‎) have taken this as an error for John de Bampton who had been High Sheriff of both Essex and Hertfordshire a few years earlier.
5. ^ Maurice Hugh Keen, England in the Later Middle Ages: A Political History (Routledge, 1975)
6. ^ See John Ball (priest): Notes: 3
7. ^ Simon Schama's A History of Britain, Episode 5, 'King Death'.
8. ^ Dobson 220

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Categories: 14th century in London | Military history of London | History of Kent | Late Middle Ages | English peasants' revolt of 1381 | Protests in England | Rebellions in medieval England

UNESCO RED BOOK ON ENDANGERED LANGUAGES: EUROPE

by Tapani Salminen <tasalmin@cc.helsinki.fi>

© Tapani Salminen <tasalmin@cc.helsinki.fi> 1993--1999. All rights reserved. The report may be used for private study purposes, and for that use stored in electronic form. No part of the report may be printed, reproduced, or transmitted in any form without the prior consent of the author.

Please read the background information and use the indexes for easier access.

South Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: Sweden: Idre area in Dalarna Province, Härjedalen, Jämtland, and Åsele Lappmark; Norway: Trondelag Province and southern Nordland Province
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few hundred speakers, many of whom prefer Scandinavian (Swedish-Norwegian), out of a much larger ethnic population
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: most speakers are likely to mix Scandinavian elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Knut Bergsland: Sydsamisk grammatikk. Kristiansand 1982.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Knut Bergsland (Oslo)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Ume Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: Sweden: Lycksele Lappmark and a part of Pite Lappmark; formerly also adjacent Norway
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT [in Sweden; EXTINCT in Norway]
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 60
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: less than 20 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): C. A. Calleberg, Olavi Korhonen (Umeå)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Pite Sámi

1. Variant(s): Arjeplog Sámi; (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: Sweden: most parts of Pite Lappmark; formerly also adjacent Norway
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT [in Sweden; EXTINCT in Norway]
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 60
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: less than 20 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Juhani Lehtiranta: Arjeploginsaamen äänne- ja taivutusopin pääpiirteet. Helsinki 1992.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Olavi Korhonen (Umeå), Juhani Lehtiranta (Helsinki)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Lule Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: Sweden: Lule Lappmark; Norway: northern Nordland Province
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but very few of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: maximum 2,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: younger speakers may be less competent and prefer Scandinavian (Swedish-Norwegian)
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Nils Eric Spiik: Lulesamisk grammatik. Luleå 1977.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Olavi Korhonen (Umeå), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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North Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: Sweden: Torne Lappmark; Norway: most parts of Troms and Finnmark provinces; Finland: Utsjoki and Enontekiö counties, western Inari County, and Vuotso region of Sodankylä County; formerly extended to Petsamo area in Murmansk Province of the Russian Federation
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic); dialects: Torne Sámi, (East and West) Finnmark Sámi, Sea Sámi
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Sweden, Norway and Finland; EXTINCT in the Russian Federation]
   (a) children speakers: in the core area in central Finnmark Province most children learn the language, and are likely to become active users; in the adjacent areas of Sweden and Finland, many children also learn the language; in other areas, the chances are much worse
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Sweden: a few thousand speakers; Norway: more than 20,000 speakers; Finland: approx. 1,600 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Hans-Hermann Bartens: Lehrbuch der saamischen (lappischen) Sprache. Hamburg 1989. | Klaus Peter Nickel: Samisk grammatikk. 1990.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Inari Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: Finland: central Inari County of Lapland Province
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 300
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are heavily influenced by Finnish
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Kemi Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: last spoken in Sodankylä and Kuolajärvi (Salla) counties of Lapland Province of Finland where became extinct in the 19th century; formerly in more southerly areas as far as Kuusamo County
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): very little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Skolt Sámi

1. Variant(s): (in Finnish) koltta; (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: Finland: Sevettijärvi area in Inari County of Lapland Province, mainly by people evacuated from former Finnish territory of Petsamo; the Russian Federation: earlier westernmost Murmansk Province, now translocated in Lovozero, central Murmansk Province; formerly also easternmost Finnmark Province of Norway
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED [in Finland; NEARLY EXTINCT in the Russian Federation; EXTINCT in Norway]
   (a) children speakers: Finland: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users; the Russian Federation: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Finland: approx. 300; the Russian Federation: approx. 20
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: only elderly speakers appear fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Mikko Korhonen, Jouni Mosnikoff, Pekka Sammallahti: Koltansaamen opas. Helsinki 1973.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Akkala Sámi

1. Variant(s): Babino Sámi; (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: earlier west-central Murmansk Province, now translocated in Lovozero, central Murmansk Province
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 8 speakers; some descendants of Akkala Sámi speak Kildin Sámi, but most have shifted to Russian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Kildin Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: earlier many locations in central Murmansk Province, now concentrated in Lovozero
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 20
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 800 speakers, cf. combined 797 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for the four Sámi languages, almost all of whom are Kildin speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: at least elderly speakers are fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): G. M. Kert: Saamskij jazyk. Leningrad 1971.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Ter Sámi

1. Variant(s): (for Sámi) also spelled Sami, Saami; Lappish (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: earlier eastern Murmansk Province, now translocated in Lovozero, central Murmansk Province
3. Relationships: /Sámi/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 6 speakers; some descendants of Ter Sámi speak Kildin Sámi, but most have shifted to Russian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Leif Rantala (Rovaniemi), Pekka Sammallahti (Oulu)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Livonian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Latvia: along the northern coast of Curonia in the northwest, but also scattered elsewhere; formerly also in the historical province of Livonia east of the Gulf of Riga
3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 99 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census, but reports indicate either 15 to 20 or approx. 35 active speakers, all of whom certainly prefer Latvian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Tiit-Rein Viitso: Livskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 76--90.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Kersti Boiko, Tiina Kukk, Seppo Suhonen, Tiit-Rein Viitso, Eduard Vääri
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Votian

1. Variant(s): (in Russian) vodskij [jazyk], (in Estonian) vadja, (in Finnish) vatja
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: a few small inland pockets south of the Gulf of Finland in Kingisepp County in westernmost St. Petersburg Province
3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 50
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 50 speakers at most, all of whom prefer Russian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are heavily contaminated by Ingrian, Finnish and Russian
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Arvo Laanest: Vodskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 48--55.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Alvre, Jarmo Elomaa (Helsinki), Heinike Heinsoo
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Ingrian

1. Variant(s): (in Russian) izhorskij [jazyk], (in Estonian) isuri, (in Finnish) inkeroinen
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: three small areas on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland in St. Petersburg Province: (i) cape of (in Finnish) Hevaa in the Kovashi River area in Lomonosov County, (ii) cape of Soykin (Soikkola) in Kingisepp County, and (iii) cape of Kurkola in the lower Luga River area in the same county; a fourth area was formerly along the Oredezh River in Gatchina County
3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 40
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 302 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; most prefer other languages
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: most idiolects are heavily contaminated by Finnish and Russian
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Arvo Laanest: Izhorskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 55--63.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Arvo Laanest
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Karelian (proper)

1. Variant(s): (in Karelian and Finnish) Karjala
2. Geographical location: spoken in several separate areas: Finland: (i) by people evacuated from former Finnish territories north of the Ladoga Sea, mainly Kuopio Province but also scattered elsewhere in the country, and (ii) two border villages in Suomussalmi County of Oulu Province; the Russian Federation: (i) central and northern Karelian Republic, (ii) small pockets in the vicinity of Tikhvin and Novgorod, and (iii) central Tver' Province and adjacent Dyorzha and Ves'egonsk areas
3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Russian Federation; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in Finland]
   (a) children speakers: in Finland: none; on the Russian side, a number of children learn the language, but probably all of them become more fluent in Russian and may not become active users of Karelian
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few thousand speakers in Finland; the Russian Federation: possibly approx. 35,000 speakers, cf. combined 62,542 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for Karelian, Olonetsian, and Ludian (the figure may actually be too low, because many speakers outside the Republic might not have been enumerated as such); there are more Karelian speakers in the Tver' area than in Karelian Republic
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers in the Russian Federation mix the language with Russian elements, and speakers in Finland use mostly Finnish
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): V. D. Rjagoev: Karel'skij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 63--76.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pertti Virtaranta, Pekka Zaikov, Jaan Õispuu
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Olonetsian

1. Variant(s): (in Olonetsian) livvi, (in Russian) livvikovskij [jazyk], (in Finnish) aunus
2. Geographical location: Finland: by people evacuated from former Finnish territories north of the Ladoga Sea, mainly in Kuopio Province but also scattered elsewhere in the country; the Russian Federation: in southwestern Karelian Republic northeast of the Ladoga Sea
3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Russian Federation; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in Finland]
   (a) children speakers: in Finland: none; on the Russian side, a few children learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Russian and may not become active users of Olonetsian
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Finland: a few thousand speakers; the Russian Federation: possibly approx. 25,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers in the Russian Federation mix the language with Russian elements, and speakers in Finland use mostly Finnish
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Matti Larjavaara, Anna Nazarova, Pertti Virtaranta
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Ludian

1. Variant(s): (in Ludian) liüdi, (in Russian) ljudikovskij [jazyk], (in Finnish) lyydi
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: along a narrow strip streching from north to south in southern Karelian Republic
3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: very few if any
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 5,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Pertti Virtaranta
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Vepsian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: (i) Northern Vepsian in a small area in Prionega County, southeastern Karelian Republic, (ii) Central Vepsian in a larger area across the boundary of St. Petersburg and Vologda provinces (Podporozh'e and Boksitogorsk counties of the former, and Vytegra and Babaevo counties of the latter), and (iii) Southern Vepsian in Efimovskiy County in southeastern St. Petersburg Province
3. Relationships: /Finnic/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: in a couple of villages, some children learn the language, but even they are not likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 6,355 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census (the figure may actually be slightly too low)
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): M. I. Zajceva: Vepsskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 36--48.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Irma Mullonen, M. I. Zajceva
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Erzya

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: mainly in eastern Mordvin Republic but also small pockets in the northwest and south; also several areas in Nizhniy-Novgorod, Samara, Saratov and Orenburg provinces, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan
3. Relationships: /Mordvin/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users; the situation is actually better in the Eastern diaspora areas than in the Mordvin Republic
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 500,000 speakers; cf. combined 773,827 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for the two Mordvin languages
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): A. P. Feoktistov: Erzjanskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 190--208.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): D. V. Cygankin (Saransk), G. I. Ermushkin (Moscow), László Keresztes (Debrecen), Merja Salo (Helsinki)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Moksha

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: mainly in western Mordvin Republic, extending to Ryazan' and Penza provinces; also in pockets in Tatarstan and Orenburg Province
3. Relationships: /Mordvin/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 250,000 speakers; cf. Erzya
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): A. P. Feoktistov: Mokshanskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 178--189.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): A. P. Feoktistov (Saransk), László Keresztes (Debrecen)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Western Mari

1. Variant(s): (for Mari) Cheremis (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: westernmost parts of Mari Republic and parts of Vyatka and Nizhniy-Novgorod provinces
3. Relationships: /Mari/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: few
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: less than 50,000 speakers; cf. Eastern Mari
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally competent, though some speakers mix the language with Russian elements
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): E. I. Kovedjaeva: Gornomarijskij variant literaturnogo marijskogo jazyka. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 164--173.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alho Alhoniemi (Turku), Jurij Anduganov (Yoshkar-Ola), Gábor Bereczki (Udine), I. S. Galkin (Yoshkar-Ola), E. I. Kovedjaeva, Sirkka Saarinen (Turku)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 31 Dec 1995]

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Eastern Mari

1. Variant(s): (for Mari) Cheremis (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: central and eastern parts of Mari Republic and parts of Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Udmurt Republic, and Ekaterinburg, Perm' and Orenburg provinces
3. Relationships: /Mari/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, and some of them are likely to become active users, but only in remote rural areas; in eastern diaspora areas in Bashkortostan practically all children still learn the language
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 500,000 speakers; cf. combined 542,160 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census for the two Mari languages
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): E. I. Kovedjaeva: Marijskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 148--164.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alho Alhoniemi (Turku), Jurij Anduganov (Yoshkar-Ola), Gábor Bereczki (Udine), I. S. Galkin (Yoshkar-Ola), E. I. Kovedjaeva, Sirkka Saarinen (Turku)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 31 Dec 1995]

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Udmurt

1. Variant(s): Votyak (derogatory)
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Udmurt Republic, extending to Tatarstan, Mari Republic, Bashkortostan, and Vyatka and Perm' provinces
3. Relationships: /Permian/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them may become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 520,101 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): V. K. Kel'makov: Udmurtskij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 239--255.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Sándor Csúcs (Budapest), V. K. Kel'makov (Izhevsk), Pirkko Suihkonen (Helsinki), I. V. Tarakanov (Izhevsk)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Permyak

1. Variant(s): Komi-Permyak
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Komi-Permyak District of Perm' Province, extending to Vyatka Province; a separate group is located in the Yaz'va Valley in northeastern Perm' Province
3. Relationships: /Komi/Permian/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, and some of them are likely to become active users, but only in remote rural areas
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 106,531 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): R. M. Batalova: Komi-permjackij jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 229--239.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): R. M. Batalova (Moscow)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Komi (proper)

1. Variant(s): Zyryan (derogatory), Komi-Zyryan
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Komi Republic, and parts of Nenets District of Arkhangel'sk Province, Yamal Nenets District of Tyumen' Province, and Murmansk Province
3. Relationships: /Komi/Permian/Finno-Ugrian (Uralic)
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 242,515 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): R. M. Batalova: Komi(-zyrjanskij) jazyk. Jazyki mira: ural'skie jazyki. Moskva 1993. 214--229.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): E. A. Cypanov (Syktyvkar), Anu-Reet Hausenberg (Tallinn), E. A. Igushev (Syktyvkar), Paula Kokkonen (Helsinki), Károly Rédei (Wien)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Polabian

1. Variant(s): Elbe Slavonic
2. Geographical location: in the Elbe River basin in northeastern Germany until extinction approx. 1750
3. Relationships: /Lechitic/West Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Reinhold Olesch
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Slovincian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: parishes of Schmolsin and Garde in Pomerania in present-day Poland, until extinction approx. 1900
3. Relationships: /Kashubian/Lechitic/West Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jadwiga Majowa
6. Remarks: Slovincian is so closely related to Kashubian that it must be regarded as its dialect, but it is conventionally treated separately
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 18 Aug 1999]

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Kashubian (proper)

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Poland: dispersed in an area west and northwest of Gdansk (Wejherowo, Lebork, Bytowo, Pock, Kartuzy, Koscierzyna, and Chojnice districts)
3. Relationships: /Kashubian/Lechitic/West Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: few if any
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few thousand speakers; reports of over 100,000 speakers are false and based on the number of ethnic Kashubians, great majority of whom speak a regional variant of Polish
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known in detail
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jadwiga Majowa
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Lower Sorbian

1. Variant(s): (for Sorbian) Lusatian, Wendish
2. Geographical location: Germany: lower Lausitz area around Cottbus
3. Relationships: /Sorbian/West Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 10,000 speakers; cf. Upper Sorbian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Klaus-Peter Jannasch
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Upper Sorbian

1. Variant(s): (for Sorbian) Lusatian, Wendish
2. Geographical location: Germany: upper Lausitz area around Bautzen
3. Relationships: /Sorbian/West Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 20,000 speakers; combined 70,000 to 110,000 reported for the two Sorbian languages, but the factual number may be approx. 20,000; about one third speak Lower Sorbian and two thirds Upper Sorbian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Siegfried Michalk: Deutsch und Sorbisch in der Lausitz. Germanische Linguistik 101--103, 1990, 427--444.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jurij Kral, Frido Michalk, Heinz Schuster-^Sewc
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Rusyn

1. Variant(s): Ruthenian, Carpatho-Ruthenian
2. Geographical location: Slovakia: Preshov region; the Ukraine: Transcarpathia and northern Bukovina; possibly also in southern Bukovina of Romania
3. Relationships: /South East Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Ukraine; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in Slovakia]
   (a) children speakers: a number of children learn the language, but they may not become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Slovakia, possibly 100,000, but nearly two-thirds are reported as culturally and linguistically assimilated to the Slovaks; the Ukraine, probably a couple of hundreds of thousands
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent, though Ukrainian or Russian influence is likely to be strong for some individuals
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Paul R. Magocsi: Carpatho-Rusyn studies: an annotated bibliography. Vol. I: 1975--1984. New York 1988. | Gunther Spiess: Zur gegenwertigen Situation des Rusinischen. Europäische Sprachminderheiten im Vergleich. Hrsg. von Robert Hinderling. Stuttgart 1986.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gunther Spiess
6. Remarks: Ethnic Rusyns in Vojvodina, Serbia, speak Slovak and not Rusyn.
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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(Old) Prussian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: in the 13th century, coastal areas of the Baltic from Niemen to the west of Vistula; in the 16th century, only in Samland and Kurische Nehrung; became extinct in the 17th century
3. Relationships: /West Baltic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Wolfram Euler: Das Altpreußische als Volksprache im Kreise der indogermanischen und baltischen Sprachen. Innsbruck 1988.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Wojciech Smoczy´nski, Vladimir N. Toporov
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Western Frisian

1. Variant(s): (in Frisian) frysk, (in Netherlandic) fries
2. Geographical location: the Netherlands: Friesland province
3. Relationships: /Frisian/West Germanic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: quite many children learn the language, but probably all of them become more fluent in Dutch and may not become active users of Frisian
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate up to 700,000 speakers; the factual number may be about half of that, and even among them there are many people who choose to speak mostly or always Dutch
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: elderly people are likely to be fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Germen J. de Haan: Wetenschap en ideologie in de Friese taalkunde. Ljouwert/Utrecht 1988.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Germen J. de Haan, Alastair G. H. Walker
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Eastern Frisian

1. Variant(s): Saterland Frisian
2. Geographical location: Germany: towns of Strücklingen, Ramsloh, and Scharrel in Saterland area west of Oldenburg
3. Relationships: /Frisian/West Germanic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 20
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 1,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are likely to be heavily contaminated by German
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alastair G. H. Walker
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Northern Frisian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Germany: western coast of Schleswig north of Husum and adjacent islands of Föhr, Amrum, Sylt, Helgoland, and the Halligen Islands; formerly extended to the island of Wangerooge and adjacent Denmark
3. Relationships: /Frisian/West Germanic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED [in Germany; EXTINCT in Denmark]
   (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but very few of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 10,000 speakers, but only the Ferring dialect of Föhr and Amrum is actively used; it has approx. 2,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: most idiolects are heavily contaminated by German
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alastair G. H. Walker
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Cimbrian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: towns of Giazza (Glietzen, Ljetzen), Roana (Rabam), and Lusern in Sette and Tredici Communi (Sieben and Dreizehn Gemeinde) south of Trent Province, possibly extending to adjacent Venetia Province
3. Relationships: /West Germanic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a number of children apparently learn the language, but it is not known whether they become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: several thousands, but exact figures are lacking
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: due to the proximity of Bavarian German and Venetian Italian speakers, many speakers may be less competent in Cimbrian
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Dietrich Strauss
6. Remarks: there is some confusion about the genetic position of Cimbrian: while usually regarded as an aberrant form of Bavarian, there have been claims of its direct affiliation to Langobardian
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Norn

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: last spoken in the Shetland Islands where became extinct in approx. 1880; known also from the Orkney Islands; formerly in larger areas of Scotland
3. Relationships: /North Germanic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: many Shetland and Orkney natives feel attached to a distinct ethnic group
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): very little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Laurits Rendboe
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Gothic

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: last spoken in Crimea, the Ukraine, where became extinct in the 18th century; earlier spoken in large areas in southern and eastern Europe
3. Relationships: /East Germanic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gerhard Köbler
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Irish Gaelic

1. Variant(s): (only) Gaelic, Irish, Erse
2. Geographical location: the Republic of Ireland: four principal areas in the west, two in Donegal County, one each in Galway and Kerry counties, plus eight small pockets, also in Mayo, Cork, and Waterford counties; formerly also in Northern Ireland
3. Relationships: /Goidelic/Celtic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in the Republic of Ireland; EXTINCT in Northern Ireland]
   (a) children speakers: a number of children learn the language, but they may not become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 29,000 people in the four principal areas, plus less than a thousand in each of the pockets (1976); perhaps less than 20,000 today
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: there are not many fully competent speakers among younger generations
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Desmond Fennell, Reg Hindley
6. Remarks: The official cencus figures include many English speakers who have learned Irish at school.
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Manx Gaelic

1. Variant(s): Manx
2. Geographical location: Isle of Man until the death of the last speaker in 1974
3. Relationships: /Goidelic/Celtic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: native Manx people, though monolingual in English, regard themselves as a separate people; cf. Remarks
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): George Broderick: A handbook of late spoken Manx. Tübingen 1984.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): George Broderick
6. Remarks: There are people living in the Isle of Man who have studied Manx as a foreign language, but who wish to be called speakers of Manx.
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Scottish Gaelic

1. Variant(s): (only) Gaelic
2. Geographical location: Scotland: rural areas of the Western Isles (Lewis, Harris, North Uist, South Uist, Barra) and Skye, and a few locations in the rest of the Inner Isles and the Highland mainland (mainly Sutherland, Ross-Cromarty, Inverness, and Argyll counties)
3. Relationships: /Goidelic/Celtic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a number of children learn the language, but they may not become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 20,000 to 30,000 active users; more than 50,000 others claim knowledge of the language
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: regular users appear fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Gaelic and Scotland. Ed. by William Gillies. Edinburgh 1989. | journal Scottish Gaelic Studies. Aberdeen. | journal Scottish language. Aberdeen.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Derick Thomson (Glasgow)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Welsh

1. Variant(s): (in Welsh) Cymraeg
2. Geographical location: Wales: most northern and western parts, plus a small extension to England around Oswestry; early last century almost all of Wales, and also Merseyside and larger areas of Shropshire, England
3. Relationships: /Brythonic/Celtic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Wales; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in England]
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, and recent reports indicate that the state of Welsh is slowly getting better, but it is too early to say if this will stop the gradual erosion of the language area
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: official figures range up to 550,000 but the number of regular users may be only half of that
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: regular users appear fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Henry Lewis: Die kymrische Sprache. Innsbruck 1989.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): C. H. Williams
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Cornish

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Cornwall, England, until the death of the last speaker, which probably took place in 1777
3. Relationships: /Brythonic/Celtic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Glanville Price: The languages of Britain. London 1984.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Glanville Price
6. Remarks: reports of modern speakers of Cornish actually refer to people who have studied an artificial language based on Cornish, called 'Cornic' by Price (1984)
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Breton

1. Variant(s): (in Breton) Brezhoneg
2. Geographical location: France: western Brittany, and scattered in eastern Brittany
3. Relationships: /Brythonic/Celtic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a few children learn the language, but most cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 500,000 regular users; more than a million claim some knowledge of the language
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: regular users are mostly fully competent, though even they mix French elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Marianne R. Berger: Sprachkontakte in der Bretagne. Tübingen 1988. | Malachy McKenna: A handbook of modern spoken Breton. Tübingen 1988. | Ian Press: A grammar of Modern Breton. Berlin 1986.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jean Le Dú, Malachy McKenna
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Asturian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Spain: historical province of Asturias
3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Castilian Spanish and may not become active users of Asturian
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers mix Castilian elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Xosé Lluis García Arias: Asturianisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 1. 652--693.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Xosé Lluis García Arias (Oviedo)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Leonese

1. Variant(s): known as Mirandese in Portugal
2. Geographical location: Spain: historical province of León, extending to the northeastern corner of Portugal
3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: in Spain, some children may learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Castilian Spanish and may not become active users of Leonese; in Portugal, the language is more widely used
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: in Spain, not known; in Portugal, possibly approx. 10,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers mix Castilian elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Joachim Born: Leonesisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 1. 693--700.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Joachim Born (Mannheim), Jesús Neira Martínez
6. Remarks: Extremeño in Extremadura is sometimes regarded as a co-dialect
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 21 Dec 1999]

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Aragonese

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Spain: historical province of Aragón, and parts of Navarra
3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but most if not all of them become more fluent in Castilian Spanish and may not become active users of Aragonese
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 30,000 regular users reported (1989)
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers mix Castilian elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Aragonesisch/Navarresisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 1. 37--54.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Manuel Alvar, Francho Nagore
6. Remarks: Navarrese is a co-dialect of Aragonese
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Mozarabic

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: southern Spain until extinction in early Modern Ages
3. Relationships: /Ibero-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): very little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Gascon

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: France: historical province of Gascogne (southwestern France), though actively used in the Béarn region (Pyrénées) only; Spain: the Aran Valley in the Pyrenees
3. Relationships: /Occitano-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Spain; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in France]
   (a) children speakers: France: only few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users; Spain: the situation is much better, but the total number of speakers is low
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: total number of speakers reported as 250,000 (1990); Spain: 4,800 speakers (1984)
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: at least elderly speakers both in Béarn and Aran appear to be fully competent; elsewhere in France, French influence is extremely strong, and this may be so for many speakers in Béarn, too; in Aran, there is notable Catalan and Spanish influence
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): see Languedocien
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Xavier Ravier (Toulouse)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Languedocien

1. Variant(s): Lengadoucian, Occitan (obsolete)
2. Geographical location: France: most parts of the historical provinces of Guyenne and Languedoc (in an area from Bordeaux in northwest to Montpellier in southeast, from Toulouse in southwest to Rodez in northeast)
3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 10% of the population of the region are reportedly fluent speakers; there may be quite few active users
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: most or all speakers mix French elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Okzitanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 2. 1--126.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Philippe Blanchet, Jacques Boisgontier
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Auvergnat

1. Variant(s): Auvernhas
2. Geographical location: France: historical province of Auvergne, the departments of Cantal (except Aurillac region), Haute-Loire, and Puy-de-Dóme
3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known, but the number of actual users is probably quite low
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: even the language of the most competent speakers is likely to be heavily contaminated by French
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): see Languedocien
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jean-Claude Potte
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Limousin

1. Variant(s): Lemosin
2. Geographical location: France: mainly historical province of Limousin, the departments of Charente (partly), Creuse, Corréze, Dordogne (except sothern part) and Haute-Vienne
3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reportedly spoken by 10% to 20% of the population of the region; the actual number of speakers may be quite low
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: in the northern dialects, there are many inherent French features, but in all areas, even the most fluent speakers are likely to mix French elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): see Languedocien
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jean-Claude Potte
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Provençal

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: France: the historical province of Provence as well as south of Dauphiné and the Nimes region in Languedoc; Italy: upper valleys of Piedmont (Val Mairo, Val Varacho, Val d'Esturo, Entraigas, Limoun, Vinai, Pignerol, Sestriero)
3. Relationships: /Occitan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: in France, probably a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users; in Italy, the language is still widely used
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 250,000 fluent speakers reported in France (1990), but not all of them are likely to be active users; 100,000 speakers of all ages in Italy (1990)
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: younger speakers are likely to be less competent, and most speakers mix French or Italian elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Okzitanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. VI, 2. 1--126.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Philippe Blanchet
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1995

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Walloon

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Belgium: most of Wallonia, i.e. the provinces of Liege (cities: Liege, Verviers, Malmedy), Namur (Namur, Dinant), Brabant wallon (Louvain-la-Neuve, Nivelles), Luxembourg (Neufchâteau, Bastogne) except the regions of Virton (Lorrain [French]) and Arlon (Letzebuergesch) and, finally, the province of Hainaut (Charleroi, La Louvière) except the area from Tournai to Mons (where Picard [French] is spoken); France: in the north of the departement des Ardennes (town of Givet); Luxembourg: formerly two or three villages (Doncols, Sonlez)
3. Relationships: /Gallo-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED [in Belgium; SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED in France; EXTINCT in Luxembourg]
   (a) children speakers: in Belgium, a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users; in France, there are probably no children who learn the language; in Luxembourg, the last speaker died in the 1970s
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: in Belgium, active speakers amount 10% of a population of 3,200,000, passive knowledge being still much more frequent; in Luxembourg, a figure 1,000 is reported but it refers to members of the ethnic group with no speakers; in France, a small number
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: younger speakers are likely to be less competent, and most speakers mix French elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Limes I; Les langues régionales romanes en Wallonie, Bruxelles, 1992 | Lorint Henchel (personal communication)
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1995 [updated 20 Dec 1999]

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Francoprovençal

1. Variant(s): Franco-Provençal
2. Geographical location: France: historical provinces of Savoie and Lyonnais, north of Dauphiné, parts of Bourgogne and Franche-Comté; Italy: Vallé d'Aosta extending to Piemonte; Switzerland: most of Suisse romande
3. Relationships: /Gallo-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: POTENTIALLY ENDANGERED [in Italy; ENDANGERED in France and Switzerland]
   (a) children speakers: in France, probably a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users; in Switzerland, the situation may be slightly better; in Italy, the language is still quite widely used
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known for France; 70,000 in Italy (1971 census); an unknown portion of the 1,235,000 Gallo-Romance-speaking people in Switzerland (1986)
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: in all countries, most speakers are likely to mix French elements in their speech
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Philippe Blanchet
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1995 [updated 22 Sept 1999 thanks to the help of Gabor Sandi]

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Romansch

1. Variant(s): Rhaetian, (in German often) Bündnerromanisch
2. Geographical location: Switzerland: Graubünden (Rhaetia), mainly in Surselva, Seumeir, and Unterengadin
3. Relationships: /Rhaeto-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but most of them become more fluent in German and may not become active users of Romansch
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: perhaps little more than half of the official number of 65,000 (1986) use the language actively
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Bündnerromanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989. 764--912.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Theodor Ebneter (Zürich), Ricarda Liver (Bern)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Ladin

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: in several valleys of the Dolomites in Bolzano Province (South Tyrol), extending to Trento and Belluno provinces
3. Relationships: /Rhaeto-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but many of them cease to use it throughout the school years; besides, the total number of speakers is low
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 10,000; another report indicates 20,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Ladinisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989. 646--763.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gian Battista Pellegrini (Padova), Guntram A. Plangg (Innsbruck)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Friulian

1. Variant(s): (in Friulian) Furlan
2. Geographical location: Italy: Udine Province, extending to Gorizia and Venezia provinces
3. Relationships: /Rhaeto-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but many of them cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 350,000; another figure indicates as many as 720,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: most idiolects are heavily influenced by Italian
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Friaulisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989. 563--645.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Giovanni Frau (Udine), Carla Marcato (Padova)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Gallurese Sardinian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: northeastern Sardinia
3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 100,000; cf. Logudorese Sardinian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources: see Logudorese Sardinian
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Logudorese Sardinian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: central Sardinia
3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 500,000; the total number of Sardinian speakers is over one million (one figure gives as many as 1,530,000 speakers), thought many of them use Italian more often
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Eduardo Blasco Ferrer: Storia linguistica della Sardegna. Tübingen 1984. | Eduardo Blasco Ferrer: La lingua sarda contemporanea. Cagliari 1986. | Rosita Rindler Schjerve: Sprachkontakt auf Sardinien. Tübingen 1987.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Maria T. Atzori, Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Rosita Rindler Schjerve
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Campidanese Sardinian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: southern Sardinia
3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 500,000; cf. Logudorese Sardinian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources: see Logudorese Sardinian
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Sassarese Sardinian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: northwestern Sardinia
3. Relationships: /Sardinian/Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but some of them cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: possibly approx. 100,000; cf. Logudorese Sardinian
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources: see Logudorese Sardinian
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Istriot

1. Variant(s): Istro-Romance
2. Geographical location: Croatia: western coast of the Istrian Peninsula, now only in towns of Rovinj (Rovigno) and Vodnjan (Dignano)
3. Relationships: /Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: probably less than 1,000
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are likely to be heavily contaminated by Italian
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Flavia Ursini: Istro-Romanisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989. 537--548.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little published
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Flavia Ursini (Padova)
6. Remarks: the genetic classification of Istriot is not settled: it is often regarded as an early, i.e. pre-Venetian, off-shot from Italy, but others held that it is a separate branch of Romance or see connections with Friulian or Dalmatian
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Dalmatian

1. Variant(s): Ragusan
2. Geographical location: Croatia: along the coast of Dalmatia, last spoken in Krk (Veglia) where became extinct in 1898, formerly also in Zarar (Zada) and Dubrovnik (Ragusa)
3. Relationships: /Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Mario Doria: Dalmatisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Mario Doria (Trieste)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Istro-Romanian

1. Variant(s): Istrio-Romanian
2. Geographical location: Croatia: one village, ^Zejane, in the northeast of the Istrian Peninsula, and a few villages south of it
3. Relationships: /Eastern/Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably few
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: one report gives 1,250 to 1,500 speakers (450 to 500 in ^Zejane, 800 to 1,000 in the southern villages), another only 555
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known, but all speakers are bilingual in Croatian, which certainly has a strong influence on the language
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Wolfgang Dahmen: Istrorumänisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989. 448--460.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Wolfgang Dahmen, Pavao Tekav^ci´c
6. Remarks: The high number of speakers assigned to Istro-Romanian in the Ethnologue and, consequently, International Encyclopedia of Linguistics actually refers to Italian (Venetian) speakers in former Yugoslavia. The third Romance idiom on the Istrian Peninsula, Istriot, is also often confused with Istro-Romanian.
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Aromunian

1. Variant(s): Macedo-Romanian, Arumanian, Aromanian
2. Geographical location: two larger areas, one in central Thessaly, Greece, another in central Albania, and several small pockets in Greek Macedonia, Republic of Macedonia, and southwestern Bulgaria
3. Relationships: /Eastern/Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but many of them cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate approx. 50,000 speakers in Greece, 10,000 in Albania, 50,000 in the Republic of Macedonia, 40,000 in Bulgaria; the present situation is, however, poorly known: many of the alleged speakers may actually use other languages
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known in detail, but the language of all speakers is fundamentally influenced by Greek
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Achille G. Lazarou: L'aroumain et ses rapports avec le grec. Thessaloniki 1986. | Johannes Kramer: Aromunisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989. 423--435.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Andrei Avram, Johannes Kramer
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Meglenitic

1. Variant(s): Megleno-Romanian
2. Geographical location: Greece and (the Republic of) Macedonia, a few villages on both sides of the border in the Meglena River valley north of Thessaloniki
3. Relationships: /Eastern/Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably few
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: according to a detailed count by Atanasov (1989), there were 5,213 speakers, only 70% of whom, however, remained in the area
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Wolfgang Dahmen: Meglenorumänisch. Lexicon der Romanistische Linguistik. III. Tübingen 1989. 436--447.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Petar Atanasov, Wolfgang Dahmen
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Tsakonian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Greece: around Kastanitas, Sitena, Leonidi, and Prastos in eastern Peloponnesus
3. Relationships: /Greek/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a few children learn the language, but most cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: perhaps no more than 300 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): E. Bourgnet: Le dialect laconien. Paris 1927.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Chuvash

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Chuvash Republic, extending to Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, and Samara, Simbirsk, and Saratov provinces
3. Relationships: /Turkic
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 1,408,218 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): John R. Krueger: Chuvash Manual. Bloomington & The Hague 1961.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): L. P. Sergeev
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Karaim

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: originally Crimea, the Ukraine, where small communities may remain near Evpatoriya; since early times translocated in Trakai (Troki) and a few other places in Lithuania; also around the west Ukrainian cities of Luck and Galich.
3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 503 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): T. Kowalski: Karaimische Texte im Dialekt von Troki. Cracow 1929.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Tapani Harviainen (Helsinki)
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Bashkir

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Bashkortostan, extending to Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Orenburg, Samara and Saratov provinces, and Tatarstan
3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: many children learn the language, but most of them become more fluent in Tatar or Russian and may not become active users of Bashkir
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 1,047,723 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: Tatar influence is universally strong
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Grammatika sovremennogo bashkirskogo literaturnogo jazyka. Moskva 1981.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Zinnar G. Uraksin
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Crimean Tatar

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: the Ukraine: Crimea, though most speakers were deported to various places, mainly to Central Asia, after the Second World War: only a small number has remained in Crimea or has returned there; Bulgaria: southern Dobruja area, extending to Romania
3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but few if any of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 251,537 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; 6,000 speakers in Bulgaria (1990); see also Nogai
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: probably all speakers exhibit strong influence of related Turkic languages, or Russian or Bulgarian; among younger people, many individuals may be less competent in Crimean Tatar
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Gerhard Doerfer: Das Krimtatarische. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. Wiesbaden 1959. I. 369--390.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Gerhard Doerfer
6. Remarks: five Turkic languages are known to have been spoken in Crimea, viz Crimean Tatar, Krimchak, Karaim, Nogai, and Turkish; two of them, Crimean Tatar and Nogai, are also spoken in Dobruja; a lot of confusion exists in general literature
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Nogai

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: large areas across the boundary of southern Russia and northern Caucasia; the Ukraine: Crimea, though most speakers were deported to various places, mainly to Central Asia, after the Second World War; Romania, Dobruja area
3. Relationships: /Kipchak/Common Turkic
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but only few of them are likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 67,591 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; estimated 25,000 speakers in Romania (1982) including a few speakers of Crimean Tatar
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: in the Russian Federation, generally fully competent; perhaps less so elsewhere
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): N. A. Baskakov: Nogajskij jazyk i ego dialekty. Moskva & Leningrad 1940.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): D. M. Shikhmurzaev
6. Remarks: cf. Crimean Tatar
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Gagauz

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: (i) a relatively compact area in southern Moldova (Bessarabia), extending to the Ukraine; (ii) Maritime Gagauz: the coastal region around Varna in Bulgaria, extending to Romania; (iii) Macedonian Gagauz: in southeastern Macedonia (probably referring to the Republic of Macedonia); (iv) Surguch: in the region of Edirne (Adrianople), Turkey; (v) Gajal: in the region of Deli Orman, Bulgaria; (iii)--(v) are collectively known as Balkan Gagauz (or subsumed under 'Balkan Turkic')
3. Relationships: /Oguz/Common Turkic
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but not many of them are likely to become active users; there are probably no children speaking Balkan Gagauz
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 172,957 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; 12,000 Maritime Gagauz in Bulgaria (1990); Balkan Gagauz has probably few speakers now: early in this century, there were approx. 4,000 Macedonian Gagauz, approx. 7,000 Surguch, and an unknown number of Gajal
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: many speakers, especially outside Moldova, have been strongly influenced by neighbouring languages, both by closely related Turkish and non-related languages like Bulgarian and Greek
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): N. A. Baskakov: Tjurkskie jazyki. Moskva 1960. 131--136. | L. A. Pokrovskaya: Grammatika gagauzskogo jazyka. Moskva 1964.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): quite a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Alfred F. Majewicz
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Kalmyk

1. Variant(s): Kalmuck
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Kalmyk Republic, with extentions to Astrakhan, Rostov, and Volgograd provinces and Stavropol' Region; related dialects under the label 'Oirat' are spoken in Central Asia and Mongolia
3. Relationships: /Mongol
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a few children learn the language, but most of them are not likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 156,386 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Arash Bormanshinov, D. A. Pavlov
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Cypriot Arabic

1. Variant(s): Cypriot Maronite Arabic
2. Geographical location: Cyprus: a few villages in the north
3. Relationships: /Arabic/Semitic
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a few children may learn the language, but even they become more active in Greek
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 2,000 speakers out of many thousands Maronites
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: Greek influence has been strong for a long time to make Cypriot Arabic a hybrid language, and the influence is even stronger today
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Basque

1. Variant(s): (in Basque) Euskara
2. Geographical location: Spain: Basque Country including Navarra; France: department of Pyrénées Atlantiques
3. Relationships: isolate
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: on the Spanish side, many children learn the language, but most of them become more fluent in Spanish and may not become active users of Basque; on the French side, very few children learn the language, and probably none of them have chance to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: Spain: according to a recent figure, 890,000 speakers; France: 80,000 mostly elderly speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: generally fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Mario Saltarelli: Basque. London 1989.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Howard Giles
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Romani

1. Variant(s): Rom; Gypsy (obsolete)
2. Geographical location: dispersed in many European countries, most densely in east central and eastern Europe and in the Balkans; seven Romani idioms are still spoken: (1) Vlach in Albania, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, the Ukraine, Yugoslavia, and neighbouring countries; (2) Balkan Romani in Bulgaria, Greece, Moldova, Macedonia, Romania, Turkey, the Ukraine, and Yugoslavia; (3) Welsh Romani in Wales; (4) Finnish Romani in Finland; (5) Sinte in Austria, Croatia, Czechia, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia; (6) Carpathian Romani in Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and the Ukraine; (7) Baltic Romani in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and the Ukraine; cf. Remarks
3. Relationships: /Central Indo-Aryan/Indo-Iranian/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: there are still many children who learn the language, and they would have all possibilities to become active users, were it not that practically all national governments are hostile to the Romani language and culture; in many countries, such discriminatory policies have already led to a situation where children no more learn the language
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a few millions total, but lack of reliable statistics makes estimates untrustworthy; cf. 202,810 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; Welsh and Finnish Romani have few speakers left; the situation of Sinte may actually be similar; other idioms still have large numbers; cf. Remarks
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: varies extremely
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Marcel Courthiade, Ian Hancock
6. Remarks: A group of widely divergent idioms, whose speakers live in small, often nomadic communities scattered amongst larger groups. Many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War. Scandinavian, English, Iberian, and Greek variants of Romani appear to be extinct but their lexical resources serve to form special idioms based on local languages, i.e. Rotwelsch (Scandinavian Traveller languages), Angloromani, Hispanoromani, Hellenoromani. There are also secret or in-group languages of nomadic groups like Polari and Shelta (Cant) in the British Isles, Quinqui in Spain, and Yeniche in central Europe.
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Yiddish

1. Variant(s): Judeo-German
2. Geographical location: many areas of eastern and east central Europe, earlier also central Europe, now more compactly only a few places in Belarus and the Ukraine, and in Jewish Autonomous Province (capital Birobidzhan) in eastern Siberia in the Russian Federation; most speakers now live in North America and Israel
3. Relationships: a Jewish Germanic language
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a small number of children learn the language, but very few of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: more that 1,000,000 people in North America have knowledge of the language; approx. 200,000 speakers in Israel; 153,385 speakers in the 1989 Soviet census; the actual users are everywhere quite few
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: varies extremely; fully competent speakers are probably all very old
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Studies in Yiddish linguistics. Ed. by Paul Wexler. Tünimgen 1990.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Erika Timm
6. Remarks: the traditional language of Ashkenazi Jews; many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Ladino

1. Variant(s): Judeo-Spanish, Judezmo, Dzhudezmo, Haketía
2. Geographical location: since the Middle Ages, in dispersed communities mainly in Greece and Turkey (mainly Macedonia and Thrace), but also elsewhere in the Balkans, and in Morocco; now spoken in a few locations in Turkey, and in Israel
3. Relationships: a Jewish Ibero-Romance language
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably few if any
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 8,000 speakers estimated in Turkey (1980); very few if any in Greece or elsewhere in the Balkans or in Morocco; perhaps as many as 100,000 in Israel, but Ladino is not the dominant language for most speakers; speakers are generally over 40 years old
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: probably quite few fully competent speakers
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Actes de la journée d'études judéo-espagnoles du 22 janvier 1990. Clichy 1990. | Haïm V. Séphiha: Le judéo-espagnol. Paris 1986.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a lot
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Haïm V. Séphiha
6. Remarks: the traditional language of Sephardic Jews
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Shuadit

1. Variant(s): Judeo-Provençal
2. Geographical location: originally scattered among Provençal speakers
3. Relationships: a Jewish Occitano-Romance language
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): see Italkian
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler
6. Remarks: many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Zarphatic

1. Variant(s): Judeo-French
2. Geographical location: originally scattered among French speakers
3. Relationships: a Jewish Gallo-Romance language
4. Present state of the language: EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers:
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group:
   (e) degree of speakers' competence:
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): see Italkian
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler
6. Remarks: many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Italkian

1. Variant(s): Judeo-Italian
2. Geographical location: Italy, mainly in urban areas in Rome and in central and northern Italy; also in Corfu, Greece
3. Relationships: a Jewish Italo-Romance language
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known exactly, but certainly very few
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: very few fluent speakers left (in Rome, possibly in Corfu)
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Seth Jerchower: Judeo-Italian, article to appear in 1998 in the Encyclopedia of the Renaissance, Charles Scribner's Sons | Giovanna Massariello Merzagora: Giudeo-italiano: dialetti italiani parlati dagli Ebrei d'Italia. Profilo dei dialetti italiani 23, Centro di studio per la dialettologia italiana 5; Pisa: Pacini, 1977. 92 p. | Paul Wexler: Judeo-Romance linguistics: A bibliography (Latin, Italo-, Gallo-, Ibero-, and Rhaeto-Romance except Castilian). New York 1989.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): some, mostly fragmentary
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Jana De Benedetti, Luisa Cuomo, Seth Jerchower, Giovanna Massariello Merzagora
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993 [updated 18 Aug 1999 thanks to the help of Seth Jerchower]

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Yevanic

1. Variant(s): Judeo-Greek
2. Geographical location: originally scattered among Greek speakers; most of the remaining speakers in Israel
3. Relationships: a Jewish Hellenic language
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: according to a report from 1971, possibly 35 in Israel, and 15 in the United States; apparently very few if any speakers left
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler
6. Remarks: many speakers were murdered by Germans during the Second World War
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

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Krimchak

1. Variant(s): Judeo-Crimean Tatar
2. Geographical location: originally among Crimean Tatar (q.v.) speakers, but now scattered in various places of deportation, mainly in Central Asia
3. Relationships: a Jewish Turkic language
4. Present state of the language: NEARLY EXTINCT
   (a) children speakers: none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known exactly, but only individual speakers left
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: possibly not fully competent
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Paul Wexler
6. Remarks:
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Burgenland Croatian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Austria: Burgenland
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Croatian/South Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably a number of children learn the language, but they are not likely to become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: in the 1970s, approx. 28,000 speakers, now probably much less
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known exactly, but varies among areas, and, presumably, among age groups
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: Burgenland Croatian is said to differ extensively from Croatian proper, intelligibility being difficult
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Molise Croatian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: villages of Montemitro, San Felice del Molise, and Acquaviva-Collecroce in southern Molise, and possibly elsewhere in southern Italy
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Croatian/South Slavonic/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: few if any
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 3,500 speakers according to N. Vincent in Comrie 1987; ethnic Croatians number at least 25,000
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: derives from the language of 15th and 16th century refugees
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Algherese Catalan

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: town of Alghero in northwest Sardinia
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Catalan/Occitano-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: some children learn the language, but they may not become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: a reported figure is 21,629 (1987); another figure indicates 30,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: most speakers are fully competent, but for many, the influence of Italian or Logudorese Sardinian is strong
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: an old immigrant community
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Channel Island French

1. Variant(s): Channel Island Norman French
2. Geographical location: Jersey; Guernsey and Dependencies
3. Relationships: a distinct, archaic dialect of French/Gallo-Romance/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably none
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: approx. 30
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: one source gives 6,000 speakers of Jersey Norman French; perhaps 16,000 have knowledge of the language
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: rapidly decreasing
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): Glanville Price: The languages of Britain. London 1984.
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): Glanville Price
6. Remarks: isolated from mainland Norman French
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Arvanitika Albanian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Greece: in rural areas mainly in Attica
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Tosk Albanian/Albanian/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: very few children learn the language, and probably none of them become active users
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate 50,000 to 140,000 speakers, but regular use is probably confined to a much smaller number of people
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: all idiolects are heavily influenced by Greek
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: old immigrant communities surrounded by Greek speaking areas
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Arbëreshë Albanian

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: several pockets in Avellino, Potenza, Taranto, Cosenza, Catanzaro, and Palermo provinces
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Tosk Albanian/Albanian/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: in some places, there are children learning the language, but most of them cease to use it throughout the school years
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: reports indicate 80,000 to 100,000 speakers out of an ethnic population of 260,000; another report indicates 120,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: likely to vary greatly
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: derives from the language of 15th and 16th century refugees
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Italiot Greek

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: Italy: two pockets in Taranto Province, possibly also in Reggio di Calabria
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Attic Greek/Greek/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably few if any
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: approx. 20,000 mainly older speakers; other reports indicate 30,000 to 40,000 speakers
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: Italian influence has been strong for a long time to make the language a hybrid one, and the influence is even stronger today
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): a little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: spoken in ancient Greek colonies
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Pontic Greek

1. Variant(s):
2. Geographical location: originally Turkey: along the Black Sea coast; most have emigrated to Greece since the First World War
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Attic Greek/Greek/Indo-European
4. Present state of the language: SERIOUSLY ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: probably few if any
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers: not known
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: not known
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: originally spoken in ancient Greek colonies
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 31 Dec 1993

---

Trukhmen

1. Variant(s): Caucasian Turkmen
2. Geographical location: the Russian Federation: Stavropol' Region and Astrakhan Province
3. Relationships: a diaspora dialect of Turkmen
4. Present state of the language: ENDANGERED
   (a) children speakers: a few children probably learn the language, but the situation is poorly known
   (b) mean age of youngest speakers:
   (c) distribution by sex:
   (d) total number of speakers, members of the ethnic group: 18,000 speakers reported
   (e) degree of speakers' competence: not known
5. Sources:
   (i) information (about the language): --
   (ii) published and unpublished material (of the language): little
   (iii) competent scholar(s) and institution(s): --
6. Remarks: more information about Trukhmen forthcoming
7. Compiler: Tapani Salminen, Helsinki, 23 Feb. 1996

http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/europe_report.html

Melvyn Bragg

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The Right Honourable, The Lord Bragg
Born	6 October 1939 (1939-10-06) (age 70) Wigton, Cumbria, England
Nationality	British
Occupation	broadcaster & author

Melvyn Bragg, Baron Bragg, FRSL, FRTS, FRS, born 6 October 1939, is an English author, broadcaster and media personality who, aside from his many literary endeavours, is perhaps most recognised for his work on The South Bank Show.

Contents [hide] 1 Biography 2 Broadcasting career 3 Writing career 4 Honours and awards 5 Bibliography 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Biography

Bragg was born in Wigton, the son of Mary Ethel (Park), a tailoress, and Stanley Bragg, a stock keeper turned mechanic.^[1] He attended the Nelson Thomlinson School in Wigton and then read Modern History at Wadham College, Oxford, in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Bragg says that he has suffered two nervous breakdowns in his life, one in his teens, and another in his 30s.^[2]

Bragg married his first wife, Lisa Roche, when he was 21, and they had one child, a daughter.^[3] He did not know that she had a history of suicide attempts; 10 years later, she killed herself after he left her for another woman. "I could have done things which helped and I did things which harmed," he told The Guardian in 1998. "So yes, I feel guilt, I feel remorse."^[4]

Bragg's second wife, Cate (Catherine) Haste, whom he married in 1973, is also a television producer and writer, having, among other things, edited the 2007 memoir of Clarissa Eden, widow of Sir Anthony Eden, and collaborated with Cherie Booth, wife of Tony Blair, on a 2004 book about the wives of British Prime Ministers. They have a son and a daughter.

He is a friend of Tony Blair, the former Labour Prime Minister. In 1998 Bragg was named in a list of the largest private financial donors to the Labour Party.^[5]

[edit] Broadcasting career

He started his career in 1961 as a general trainee at the BBC, spending his first two years in radio at the BBC World Service, then at the BBC Third Programme and BBC Home Service.^[6] He then joined the production team of Huw Wheldon's Monitor arts series on BBC Television.^[6] His work as a writer and broadcaster began in 1967.

He is best known for the London Weekend Television (LWT) arts programme The South Bank Show, which he has edited and presented since 1978.^[7] He has been Controller of Arts at LWT since 1990 (including a stint as Head of Arts from 1982 to 1990). He is also known for his many programmes on BBC Radio 4, including Start the Week, which he presented from 1988 to 1998, In Our Time from 1998, and The Routes of English, a history of the English language.

It was announced in May 2009 that The South Bank Show would come to an end in 2010.

[edit] Writing career

Bragg is a prolific novelist and writer of non-fiction, and has written a number of television and film screenplays. Some of his early television work was in collaboration with Ken Russell, for whom he wrote the biographical dramas The Debussy Film (1965) and Isadora Duncan, the Biggest Dancer in the World (1967), as well as Russell's film about Tchaikovsky, The Music Lovers (1970). He is president of the National Academy of Writing. His 2008 novel, Remember Me is a largely autobiographical story.^[2]

He is also a Vice President of the Friends of the British Library, a charity set up to provide funding support to the British Library.^[8]

[edit] Honours and awards

Bragg was appointed to the House of Lords in 1998 as a Labour life peer, under the title Baron Bragg, of Wigton in the County of Cumbria.

In June 1989 Bragg was awarded an Honorary Degree from the Open University as Doctor of the University. In 1999 Bragg was appointed Chancellor of the University of Leeds. He is also President of the National Campaign for the Arts (since 1986), President of the mental health charity Mind, and a Governor of the London School of Economics (since 1997). He was made Domus Fellow, St Catherine's College, Oxford, in 1990, he received an Honorary Fellowship from Wadham College, Oxford, in 1995 and he holds 13 honorary doctorates. He became a member of the Arts Council Literature Panel in 1969 and has since become Chairman.

On 17 October 2005 Bragg officially opened the "Melvyn Bragg Drama Studio", named in his honour, at Millom School, Millom, Cumbria.

In 2010 he was made a Fellow of both the Royal Society and BAFTA in 2010.^[9]

[edit] Bibliography

Fiction For Want of a Nail (1965) The Second Inheritance (1966) The Cumbrian Trilogy: The Hired Man (1969) A Place in England (1970) Kingdom Come (1980) The Nerve (1971) Josh Lawton (1972) The Silken Net (1974) Autumn Manoeuvres (1978) Love and Glory (1983) The Maid of Buttermere (1987) (based on the life of Mary Robinson) Without a City Wall (1988) The Second Inheritance (1990) A Time to Dance (1990) Crystal Rooms (1992) Credo (1996) also known as The Sword and the Miracle The Soldier's Return Quartet: The Soldier's Return (1999) A Son of War (2001) Crossing the Lines (2003) Remember Me... (2008)

Non-fiction Speak For England (1976) Land of The Lakes (1983) Laurence Olivier (1984) Cumbria in Verse (editor) (1984) Rich: The Life of Richard Burton (1988) King Lear in New York (1994) On Giants' Shoulders (1998) Two Thousand Years Part 1: The Birth of Christ to the Crusades (1999) Two Thousand Years Part 2 (1999) The Routes of English (2001) The Adventure of English (2003) Twelve Books That Changed the World (2006) In Our Time (editor) (2009) Children's books A Christmas Child (1977) My Favourite Stories of Lakeland (editor) (1981) Filmography, as screenwriter: Isadora (1968) (with Clive Exton and Margaret Drabble) Play Dirty (1968) The Music Lovers (1970) (directed by Ken Russell) Jesus Christ Superstar (1973)

Awards

• Mail on Sunday/John Llewellyn Rhys Prize for Without a City Wall (1968)
• Time/Life Silver Pen Award for The Hired Man (1970)
• Bad Sex in Fiction Award for A Time to Dance (1993)
• BAFTA TV Award for An Interview with Dennis Potter (1995)
• WH Smith Literary Award for The Soldier's Return (2000)
• The South Bank Show Lifetime Achievement Award (2010)

[edit] References

1. ^ Family detective: Melvyn Bragg - Telegraph
2. ^ ^{a b} Melvyn in the middle
3. ^ Guiness, Daphne (14 July 2008). "Melvyn in the Middle". Sydney Morning Herald. http://www.smh.com.au/news/books/melvyn-in-the-middle/2008/06/13/1213321586009.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1. Retrieved 2008-07-14. "...my first wife was an aristocrat. I didn't know that for a year." 
4. ^ Plato or Nietzsche? You choose ...
5. ^ ""Luvvies" for Labour". http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/161057.stm. 
6. ^ ^{a b} article by Melvyn Bragg in British Mensa Magazine, January 2002, page 7
7. ^ "ITV Fact File on The South Bank Show". http://www.itv.com/Entertainment/chatandtalent/SouthBankShow/TheSouthBankShow-Factfile.html. 
8. ^ "Friends of the British Library Annual Report 2006/07". http://www.bl.uk/supportus/pdf/friendsannrep0607.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-07. 
9. ^ [1]

[edit] External links

• Melvyn Bragg at the Internet Movie Database
• Melvyn Bragg at Contemporary Writers
• Melvyn Bragg at the Internet Book List
• Radio 4 biography
• In Our Time
• "Bragg opens namesake drama suite" at BBC News
• Write-up on Arts Council website
• Write-up on Museum of Broadcast Communications website
• Announcement of his introduction at the House of Lords House of Lords minutes of proceedings, 28 October 1998

Academic offices
Preceded by Katharine, Duchess of Kent	Chancellor of the University of Leeds 1999–present	Incumbent

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvyn_Bragg"

Categories: 1939 births | Living people | Alumni of Wadham College, Oxford | BAFTA winners (people) | BBC people | English journalists | English novelists | English radio personalities | English screenwriters | Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature | Fellows of the Royal Television Society | Fellows of St Catherine's College, Oxford | Fellows of Wadham College, Oxford | Labour Party life peers | People associated with the London School of Economics | People associated with the University of Leeds | People from Wigton

Norman conquest of England

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See also: Norman invasion of Ireland, Norman invasion of Wales, and Norman conquest of southern Italy

"Norman conquest" redirects here. For other uses, see Norman conquest (disambiguation).

The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings and the events leading to it.

The Norman conquest of England began on 28 September 1066 with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by the troops of William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy (in Northern France adjacent to the English Channel) and their victory at the Battle of Hastings (on the other side of the Channel in Southeast England) on 14 October 1066 over King Harold II of England. Harold's army had been badly depleted in the English victory at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in Northern England on 25 September 1066 over the army of King Harald III of Norway. By early 1071, William had secured control of most of England, although rebellions and resistance continued to approximately 1088.

The Norman conquest was a pivotal event in English history. It largely removed the native ruling class, replacing it with a foreign, French-speaking monarchy, aristocracy, and clerical hierarchy. This, in turn, brought about a transformation of the English language and the culture of England in a new era often referred to as Norman England.

By bringing England under the control of rulers originating in France, the Norman conquest linked the country more closely with continental Europe, lessened Scandinavian influence, and also set the stage for a rivalry with France that would continue intermittently for many centuries. It also had important consequences for the rest of the British Isles, paving the way for further Norman conquests in Wales and Ireland, and the extensive penetration of the aristocracy of Scotland by Norman and other French-speaking families, with the accompanying spread of continental institutions and cultural influences.

Contents [hide] 1 Origins 2 Tostig's raids and the Norwegian invasion 3 Norman invasion 4 English resistance 5 Control of England 6 Consequences 6.1 Elite replacement 6.2 English emigration 6.3 Women's rights 6.4 Governmental systems 6.5 Language 6.6 Relations with France 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

[edit] Origins

Normandy is a region in northern France which in the years prior to 1066 experienced extensive Viking resettlement. In 911, French Carolingian ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in northern France as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. Charles hoped that by doing so he would end the Viking attacks that were plaguing France at the time. In exchange, they were expected to provide protection along the coast against future Viking invaders.^[1]

Their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the Northmen from which Normandy is derived.^[2] The Normans quickly adapted to the indigenous culture, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity.^[3] They adopted the langue d'oïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, transforming it into the Norman language. They further blended into the culture by intermarrying with the local population.^[4] They also used the territory granted them as a base to extend the frontiers of the Duchy to the west, annexing territory including the Bessin, the Cotentin Peninsula and Avranches.^[5]

In 1002 King Æthelred II of England married Emma, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.^[6] Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042.^[7] This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy's ambitions for the English throne.^[8]

When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England.^[9][10] Edward's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson (king Harold II), the richest and most powerful of the English aristocracy, who was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by Archbishop Ealdred of York, although Norman propaganda claimed he was consecrated by Stigand, the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury.^[11][9][10] However, he was at once challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this.^[12] Harald III of Norway, commonly known as Harald Hardrada, also contested the succession. His claim to the throne was based on a supposed agreement between his predecessor Magnus I of Norway, and the earlier Danish King of England Harthacanute, whereby if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway.^[13] Both William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships for an invasion.^[14][15]

[edit] Tostig's raids and the Norwegian invasion

Main article: Battle of Stamford Bridge

In spring 1066 Harold's estranged and exiled brother Tostig Godwinson raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harold's fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, where he spent the summer recruiting fresh forces.^[10][16]

King Harald III of Norway invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of over 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Harald's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian king's bid for the throne. Advancing on York, the Norwegians occupied the city after defeating a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford.^[17][18]

Harold had spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade, but on 8 September, after his food supplies were exhausted, he had dismissed them.^[19] Learning of the Norwegian invasion, he rushed north, gathering forces as he went, and took the Norwegians by surprise, defeating them in the exceptionally bloody Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory came at great cost, however, as Harold's army was left in a battered and weakened state.^[20][21]

[edit] Norman invasion

Main article: Battle of Hastings

Meanwhile William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered not only from Normandy but from all over France, including large contingents from Brittany and Flanders.^[22] He mustered his forces at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. The army was ready to cross by about 12 August.^[23] However, the crossing was delayed, either because of unfavourable weather or because of the desire to avoid being intercepted by the powerful English fleet. The Normans did not in fact cross to England until a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians, following the dispersal of Harold's naval force. They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding area.^[24][22]

England, 1066: Events in the Norman Conquest.

Marching south at the news of William's landing, Harold paused briefly at London to gather more troops, then advanced to meet William. They fought at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October.^[25] The English army, drawn up in a shieldwall on top of Senlac Hill, withstood a series of Norman attacks for several hours but was depleted by the losses suffered when troops on foot pursuing retreating Norman cavalry were repeatedly caught out in the open by counter-attacks. In the evening the defence finally collapsed and Harold was killed, along with his brothers Earl Gyrth and Earl Leofwine.^[26][27]

After his victory at Hastings, William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead Edgar Atheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdred, Archbishop of York.^[28][29] William therefore advanced, marching around the coast of Kent to London. He defeated an English force which attacked him at Southwark, but he was unable to storm London Bridge and therefore sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.^[30][31]

He moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford, Oxfordshire; while there, he received the submission of Stigand. William then travelled northeast along the Chilterns, before advancing towards London from the northwest, fighting further engagements against forces from the city. Having failed to muster an effective military response, Edgar's leading supporters lost their nerve, and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire.^[32][31] William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066, in Westminster Abbey.^[33][31]

[edit] English resistance

Main article: Harrying of the North

Despite this submission, local resistance continued to erupt for several years. In 1067 rebels in Kent launched an abortive attack on Dover Castle in combination with Eustace II of Boulogne.^[34][35] In the same year the Shropshire landowner Eadric the Wild, in alliance with the Welsh rulers of Gwynedd and Powys, raised a revolt in western Mercia, fighting Norman forces based in Hereford.^[36][35] In 1068 William besieged rebels in Exeter, including Harold's mother Gytha; after suffering heavy losses William managed to negotiate the town's surrender.^[37][38]

Later in the year Edwin and Morcar raised a revolt in Mercia with Welsh assistance, while Earl Gospatric led a rising in Northumbria, which had not yet been occupied by the Normans. These rebellions rapidly collapsed as William moved against them, building castles and installing garrisons as he had already done in the south.^[39] Edwin and Morcar again submitted, while Gospatric fled to Scotland, as did Edgar the Atheling and his family, who may have been involved in these revolts.^[40][41] Meanwhile Harold's sons, who had taken refuge in Ireland, raided Somerset, Devon and Cornwall from the sea.^[42][43]

Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria Robert de Comines and several hundred soldiers accompanying him were massacred at Durham; the Northumbrian rebellion was joined by Edgar, Gospatric, Siward Barn and other rebels who had taken refuge in Scotland. The castellan of York, Robert fitzRichard, was defeated and killed, and the rebels besieged the Norman castle at York. William hurried with an army from the south, defeated the rebels outside York and pursued them into the city, massacring the inhabitants and bringing the revolt to an end.^[44][45] He built a second castle at York, strengthened Norman forces in Northumbria and then returned to the south. A subsequent local uprising was crushed by the garrison of York.^[46][45] Harold's sons launched a second raid from Ireland but were defeated in Devon by Norman forces under Count Brian, a son of Eudes, Count of Penthièvre.^[47][48]

In the late summer of 1069 a large fleet sent by Sweyn II of Denmark arrived off the coast of England, sparking a new wave of rebellions across the country. After abortive attempted raids in the south, the Danes joined forces with a new Northumbrian uprising, which was also joined by Edgar, Gospatric and the other exiles from Scotland as well as Earl Waltheof. The combined Danish and English forces defeated the Norman garrison at York, seized the castles and took control of Northumbria, although a raid into Lincolnshire led by Edgar was defeated by the Norman garrison of Lincoln.^[49][50]

At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia, where the forces of Eadric the Wild, together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from Cheshire and Shropshire, attacked the castle at Shrewsbury. In the south-west rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman garrison at Exeter, but were repulsed by the defenders and scattered by a Norman relief force under Count Brian. Other rebels from Dorset, Somerset and neighbouring areas besieged Montacute Castle but were defeated by a Norman army gathered from London, Winchester and Salisbury under Geoffrey of Coutances.^[51][50]

Meanwhile William attacked the Danes, who had moored for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire and drove them back to the north bank. Leaving Robert of Mortain in charge in Lincolnshire, he turned west and defeated the Mercian rebels in battle at Stafford.^[51][50] When the Danes again crossed to Lincolnshire the Norman forces there again drove them back across the Humber. William advanced into Northumbria, defeating an attempt to block his crossing of the swollen River Aire at Pontefract. The Danes again fled at his approach, and he occupied York. He bought off the Danes, who agreed to leave England in the spring, and through the winter of 1069–70 his forces systematically devastated Northumbria in the Harrying of the North, subduing all resistance.^[52][50]

In the spring of 1070, having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric, and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland, William returned to Mercia, where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south.^[53][50] Sweyn II of Denmark arrived in person to take command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw, sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward, who were based on the Isle of Ely. Soon, however, Sweyn accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William and returned home.^[54][55]

After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large, protected by the marshes, and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area. Edwin and Morcar again turned against William, and while Edwin was soon betrayed and killed, Morcar reached Ely, where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland. William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance. After some costly failures the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely, defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island, marking the effective end of English resistance.^[56][57]

Many of the Norman sources which survive today were written in order to justify their actions, in response to Papal concern about the treatment of the native English by their Norman conquerors during this period.^[58]

[edit] Control of England

Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control.^[59] The Normans were few in number compared to the native English population. Historians estimate the number of Norman settlers at around 8,000, but Norman in this instance includes not just natives of Normandy, but settlers from other parts of France.^[60] The Normans overcame this numerical deficit by adopting innovative methods of control.

First, unlike Cnut the Great, who had rewarded his followers with money rather than displacing native landholders, William's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion.^[61] However, William claimed ultimate possession of virtually all the land in England over which his armies had given him de facto control, and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit.^[62] Henceforth, all land was "held" from the King.^[62] Initially, William confiscated the lands of all English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed most of them to his Norman supporters (though some families were able to "buy back" their property and titles by petitioning William).^[63] These initial confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more confiscations, in a cycle that continued virtually unbroken for five years after the Battle of Hastings.^[61] To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers,^[64] initially mostly on the motte-and-bailey pattern.^[65]

Even after active resistance to his rule had died down, William and his barons continued to use their positions to extend and consolidate Norman control of the country. For example, if an English landholder died without issue, the King (or in the case of lower-level landholders, one of his barons) could designate the heir, and often chose a successor from Normandy.^{[citation needed]} William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing marriages to Normans.^[66] In this way the Normans displaced the native aristocracy and took control of the upper ranks of society.

A measure of William's success in taking control is that, from 1072 until the Capetian conquest of Normandy in 1204, William and his successors were largely absentee rulers. For example, after 1072, William spent more than 75% of his time in France rather than in England. While he needed to be personally present in Normandy to defend the realm from foreign invasion and put down internal revolts, he was able to set up royal administrative structures that enabled him to rule England from a distance, by "writ".^[67] Kings were not the only absentees since the Anglo-Norman barons would use the practice too.

Keeping the Norman lords together and loyal as a group was just as important, since any friction could give the native English a chance to oust their minority Anglo-French-speaking lords. One way William accomplished this cohesion was by giving out land in a piecemeal fashion and punishing unauthorised holdings. A Norman lord typically had property spread out all over England and Normandy, and not in a single geographic block.^[68] Thus, if the lord tried to break away from the king, he could only defend a small number of his holdings at any one time.

Over the longer range the same policy greatly facilitated contacts between the nobility of different regions and encouraged the nobility to organize and act as a class, rather than on an individual or regional base which was the normal way in other feudal countries. The existence of a strong centralized monarchy encouraged the nobility to form ties with the city dwellers, which was eventually manifested in the rise of English parliamentarianism.

[edit] Consequences

[edit] Elite replacement

Main article: Companions of William I of England

A direct consequence of the invasion was the near-total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England. William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers. The Domesday Book meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation, revealing that by 1086 only about 5% of land in England south of the Tees was left in English hands. Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed, the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country.^[69]

Natives were also soon purged from high governmental and ecclesiastical office. After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans, while Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs. Likewise in the Church senior English office-holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes but replaced by foreigners when they died. By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman, while English abbots became uncommon, especially in the larger monasteries.^[70]

No other medieval European conquest of Christians by Christians had such devastating consequences for the defeated ruling class. Meanwhile, William's prestige among his followers increased tremendously because he was able to award them vast tracts of land at little cost to himself. His awards also had a basis in consolidating his own control; with each gift of land and titles, the newly created feudal lord would have to build a castle and subdue the natives. Thus the conquest was self-perpetuating.

[edit] English emigration

Large numbers of English people, especially from the dispossessed former landowning class, ultimately found Norman domination unbearable and emigrated. Scotland and the Byzantine Empire were particularly popular destinations, while others settled in Scandinavia and perhaps as far afield as Russia and the coasts of the Black Sea. Many English nobles and soldiers migrated to Byzantium, where they became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, hitherto a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn. English Varangians continued to serve the empire until at least the mid-fourteenth century.

[edit] Women's rights

Women enjoyed a Golden Age of rights before the Norman Conquest of England. This is partially true because of the Germanic practice of the Fore-mother, which was culturally brought by the Anglo-Saxons. Women would begin to lose their rights slowly after the Danish invasion and the Cnut's revision of laws. Women lost consent to marriage, and widows lost the right to marry under the rule of Cnut. The Norman Conquest was both a boon and hamper on rights. The Norman leadership allowed some rights to Noblewomen, but none to the lower social classes. These rights were generally targeted to women who had access to land, or produced heirs for their barons, or reeves.^[71] Monmouth reflected upon this in his literature, "A History of the Kings of Britain", when Mordred forcefully marries Guinevere, uniting England under his control.^[72]

[edit] Governmental systems

Before the Normans arrived, Anglo-Saxon England had one of the most sophisticated governmental systems in Western Europe. All of England was divided into administrative units called shires (shares) of roughly uniform size and shape, which were run by officials known as "shire reeve" or "sheriff". The shires tended to be somewhat autonomous and lacked coordinated control. English government made heavy use of written documentation which was unusual for kingdoms in Western Europe and made for more efficient governance than word of mouth.

The English developed permanent physical locations of government. Most medieval governments were always on the move, holding court wherever the weather and food or other matters were best at the moment. This practice limited the potential size and sophistication of a government body to whatever could be packed on a horse and cart, including the treasury and library. England had a permanent treasury at Winchester, from which a permanent government bureaucracy and document archive began to grow.

This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and grew stronger. The Normans centralised the autonomous shire system. The Domesday survey exemplifies the practical codification which enabled Norman assimilation of conquered territories through central control of a census. It was the first kingdom-wide census taken in Europe since the time of the Romans, and enabled more efficient taxation of the Normans' new realm.

Systems of accounting grew in sophistication. A government accounting office called the Exchequer was established by Henry I. In 1150, some years after Henry's death, the Exchequer was established at the Palace of Westminster. The tradition continues to the present day, with the office of the Chancellor of the Exchequer at nearby 11 Downing Street, adjacent to number 10, the office of the First Lord of the Treasury who in modern times is also the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and just a block from HM Treasury at 1 Horse Guards Road.

[edit] Language

One of the most obvious changes was the introduction of Anglo-Norman, a northern dialect of Old French, as the language of the ruling classes in England, displacing Old English. This predominance was further reinforced and complicated in the mid-twelfth century by an influx of followers of the Angevin dynasty, speaking a more mainstream dialect of French. Not until the fourteenth century would English regain its former primacy, while the use of French at court continued into the fifteenth century.

By this time English had itself been profoundly transformed, developing into the starkly different Middle English which formed the basis for the modern language. During the centuries of French linguistic dominance a large proportion of the words in the English language had disappeared and been replaced by French words, leading to the present hybrid tongue in which an English core vocabulary is combined with a largely French abstract vocabulary. The grammatical structures of the language had also changed dramatically, although the relationship, if any, between this transformation and the marginalisation of English resulting from the conquest is uncertain.

[edit] Relations with France

After the conquest, relations between the Anglo-Norman monarchy and the French crown became increasingly fractious. Considerable hostility had already developed between William and his Capetian overlords before the invasion of England, and this was soon exacerbated by Capetian support for his son Robert Curthose, who fought a series of wars against his father and later against his brothers. As Dukes of Normandy, William and his descendants were still vassals of the King of France, but as Kings of England they were his equals.

In the 1150s, with the creation of the Angevin Empire, the Plantagenet successors of the Norman kings controlled half of France and all of England, dwarfing the power of the Capetians. The contradictions inherent in this situation became more problematic as the French monarchy grew stronger and increasingly assertive in the rights it claimed over its vassals. A crisis came in 1204 when Philip II of France seized all Norman and Angevin holdings in France except Gascony.

In the fourteenth century the intermittent warfare over the continental territories of the Kings of England which had continued since William's time escalated into the Hundred Years War, prompted by the efforts of Edward III to regain his ancestors' lands in France and to extend the sovereignty he enjoyed in England to his French possessions, cutting the ties of vassalage binding him to the French crown. This struggle ended only with the final collapse of the Plantagenet position in France in 1453, which effectively severed the connection established in 1066. Thus the entanglement of the English kingdom with the continental possessions and interests of the French magnates who had seized the throne embroiled England in almost four centuries of recurrent warfare against the Kings of France. These conflicts gave rise to a deep-rooted and durable tradition of Anglo-French rivalry and antagonism.

[edit] Legacy

As early as the 12th century the Dialogue concerning the Exchequer attests to considerable intermarriage between native English and Norman immigrants. Over the centuries, particularly after 1348 when the Black Death pandemic killed a significant number of the English nobility, the two groups largely intermarried and became barely distinguishable.^{[citation needed]}

The Norman conquest is viewed as the last successful conquest of England, although the Dutch victory in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 should be identified as the most recent successful invasion from the continent; an important distinction is that the Glorious Revolution can be seen as one segment of the English ruling class centred around Parliament collaborating with outside forces to oust a different segment of the ruling classes (that centred around the Stuart monarchy), whereas in the Norman conquest the entire English ruling class was utterly displaced.

Major invasion attempts were launched by the Spanish in 1588 and the French in 1744 and again in 1759, but in each case the combined impact of the weather and the attacks of the Royal Navy on their escort fleets thwarted the enterprise without the invading army even putting to sea. Invasions were also prepared by the French in 1805 and Nazi Germany in 1940, but these were abandoned after preliminary operations failed to overcome Britain's naval and, in the latter case, air defences. (see Battle of Britain)

Various small, highly localised and very brief raids on British coasts were successful within their limited scope, such as those launched on various coastal towns by the French during the Hundred Years War, the Spanish landing in Cornwall in 1595, slave raids by Barbary corsairs in the seventeenth century and the Dutch raid on the Medway shipyards in 1667.

[edit] See also

• Ordinance of Normandy
• Norman invasion of Ireland
• Norman invasion of Wales
• Norman conquest of southern Italy
• Bayeux Tapestry

[edit] Notes

1. ^ Bates Normandy Before 1066 pp. 8–10
2. ^ Crouch Normans pp. 15–16
3. ^ Bates Normandy Before 1066 p. 12
4. ^ Bates Normandy Before 1066 pp. 20–21
5. ^ Hallam and Everard Capetian France p. 53
6. ^ Williams Æthelred the Unready p. 54
7. ^ Huscroft Ruling England p. 3
8. ^ Stafford Unification and Conquest pp. 86–99
9. ^ ^{a b} Higham Death of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 167–181
10. ^ ^{a b c} Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 194–195
11. ^ Walker Harold pp. 136–138
12. ^ Bates William the Conqueror pp. 73–77
13. ^ Higham Death of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 188–190
14. ^ Huscroft Ruling England pp. 12–14
15. ^ Other contenders later came to the fore. The first was Edgar Ætheling, Edward the Confessor's great nephew who was of direct descent from King Edmund Ironside. He was the son of Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside, and was born in Hungary, where his father had fled after the conquest of England by Cnut. After his family's eventual return to England and his father's death in 1057, Edgar had by far the strongest hereditary claim to the throne. Unfortunately for Edgar, he was only about thirteen or fourteen at the time of Edward the Confessor's death and with little family to support him, his claim was passed over by the Witan. Another contender was Sweyn II of Denmark, who had a claim to the throne as the grandson of Sweyn Forkbeard and nephew of Cnut, but he did not make his bid for the throne until 1069. Tostig Godwinson's attacks in early 1066 may have been the beginning of a bid for the throne, but after defeat at the hands of Edwin and Morcar and the desertion of most of his followers he threw his lot in with Harald Hardrada
16. ^ Walker Harold pp. 144–145
17. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 196–197
18. ^ Walker Harold pp. 154–158
19. ^ Walker Harold pp. 144–150
20. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 197–199
21. ^ Walker Harold pp. 158–165
22. ^ ^{a b} Bates William the Conqueror pp. 79–89
23. ^ Douglas William the Conqueror p. 192
24. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 198–199; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 168–171
25. ^ Bates William the Conqueror pp. 88–94
26. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 198–199; Gesta Normannorum Ducum, vol. 2, pp. 166–171; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 170–179
27. ^ Lawson Battle of Hastings pp. 183–220
28. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 199–200; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 182–183
29. ^ Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 204–205
30. ^ Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 180–183
31. ^ ^{a b c} Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 205–206
32. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 200; Gesta Normannorum Ducum, vol. 2, pp. 170–3; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 182–183
33. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 198, 200; Gesta Normannorum Ducum, vol. 2, pp. 170–173; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 182–185
34. ^ Gesta Normannorum Ducum, vol. 2, pp. 176–179; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 204–207
35. ^ ^{a b} Douglas William the Conqueror p. 212
36. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 200; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 4–5
37. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 201; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 4–7; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 210–215
38. ^ Walker Harold pp. 186–190
39. ^ Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 214–215
40. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 200–203; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 6–7; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 214–219
41. ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 24–27
42. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 203; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 6–9
43. ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 20–21
44. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 202–203; Gesta Normannorum Ducum, vol. 2, pp. 180–181; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 220–223
45. ^ ^{a b} Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 27–34
46. ^ Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 220–223
47. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 203; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 8–9; Gesta Normannorum Ducum, vol. 2, pp. 180–183; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 224–225
48. ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest p. 35
49. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 202–204; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 8–11; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 226–229
50. ^ ^{a b c d e} Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 35–41
51. ^ ^{a b} Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 228–229
52. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 204; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 8–11; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 230–233
53. ^ Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 232–237
54. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 205–207
55. ^ Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 221–222
56. ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 206–208; Florence, vol. 3, pp. 18–21; Orderic, vol. 2, pp. 256–259
57. ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 49–57
58. ^ Walker. Harold, the last Anglo-Saxon king p.xxvii and pp. 37–38
59. ^ Stafford Unification and Conquest pp. 102–105
60. ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 82–83
61. ^ ^{a b} Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 79–80
62. ^ ^{a b} Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 84
63. ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 75–76
64. ^ Chibnall Anglo-Norman England pp. 11–13
65. ^ Kaufman and Kaufman Medieval Fortress p. 110
66. ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 89
67. ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 91
68. ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 83–84
69. ^ Thomas, English pp. 105–37; Thomas, 'Significance', pp. 303–33
70. ^ Thomas, English, pp. 202–8
71. ^ Stafford, "Women and the Norman Conquest", pp. 221-49
72. ^ Black, Conolly, Flint, Grundy, "The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: The Medieval Period (1st Edition)", p. 154

[edit] References

• Bates, David (1982). Normandy Before 1066. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-48492-8. 
• Bates, David (2001). William the Conqueror. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1980-3. 
• Campbell, J. (1982) The Anglo-Saxons, Oxford : Phaidon, ISBN 0-7148-2149-7
• Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-014824-8. 
• Chibnall, Marjorie (1986). Anglo-Norman England 1066–1166. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-15439-6. 
• Crouch, David (2007). The Normans: The History of a Dynasty. London: Hambledon & London. ISBN 1-85285-595-9. 
• Douglas, David C. (1964). William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
• Florence of Worcester, The Chronicle of John of Worcester, ed. P. McGurk, 3 vols (1995–8), Oxford: Clarendon
• The Gesta Normannorum Ducum of William of Jumieges, Orderic Vitalis, and Robert of Torigny, ed. M. C. Van Houts, 2 vols. (1992–5), Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Hallam, Elizabeth M.; Everard, Judith (2001). Capetian France 987–1328 (Second ed.). New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-40428-2. 
• Higham, Nick (2000). The Death of Anglo-Saxon England. Stroud: Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-2469-1. 
• Huscroft, Richard (2005). Ruling England 1042–1217. London: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 0-582-84882-2. 
• Hyland, Ann (1994). The Medieval Warhorse: From Byzantium to the Crusades. London: Grange Books. ISBN 1-85627-990-1. 
• Kaufman, J. E. and Kaufman, H. W. (2001). The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts, and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81358-0. 
• Orderic Vitalis, The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis, ed. Marjorie Chibnall, 6 vols. (1968–80), Oxford: Clarendon, ISBN 0-19-822243-2
• Rowse, A. L. (1979) The story of Britain, London : Treasure, ISBN 0-907407-84-6
• Stafford, Pauline (1989). Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. London: Edward Arnold. ISBN 0-7131-6532-4. 
• Swanton, Michael James (trans.) (1998). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92129-5. 
• Thomas, Hugh M. (2003) The English and the Normans, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Thomas, Hugh M. (2003) 'The significance and fate of the native English landowners of 1086', English Historical Review 118 (2003), pp. 303–33
• Walker, Ian (2000). Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King. Gloucestershire: Wrens Park. ISBN 0-905-778-464. 
• Williams, Ann (2003). Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King. London: Hambledon & London. ISBN 1-85285-382-4. 
• Williams, Ann (2000). The English and the Norman Conquest. Ipswich: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-708-4. 

[edit] Further reading

• Chibnall, Marjorie (1999). Debate on the Norman Conquest. New York: St. Martin's Press. 
• Humble, Richard (1992). The Fall of Saxon England. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0880299878. 
• Howarth, David (1981). 1066 The Year of the Conquest. Viking Penguin. ISBN 0140058508. 
• Loyn, H. R., (1965). The Norman Conquest A synthesis for the general reader.
• Rex, Peter (2004). The English Resistance: The Underground War Against the Normans. Tempus Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0752428276. 
• Savage, Anne (1997). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. CLB. ISBN 1858334780. 
• van Houts, Elisabeth (1995). "The Norman Conquest through European Eyes". English Historical Review (The English Historical Review, Vol. 110, No. 438) 110 (438): 832–853. http://jstor.org/stable/576795. 

[edit] External links

• Essential Norman Conquest
• Normans – a background to the Conquest
• The Invasion of England, 1066

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Categories: Norman conquest of England | Military history of Normandy | High Middle Ages | Succession to the British crown

Bengali Language Movement

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This article is about the language movement in Bangladesh. For other uses, see Language movement.

Procession march held on 21 February 1952 in Dhaka

The Bengali Language Movement, also known as the Language Movement (Bengali: ভাষা আন্দোলন; Bhasha Andolon), was a political effort in Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan), advocating the recognition of the Bengali language as an official language of Pakistan. Such recognition would allow Bengali to be used in government affairs.

When the state of Pakistan was formed in 1947, its two regions, East Pakistan (also called East Bengal) and West Pakistan, were split along cultural, geographical, and linguistic lines. In 1948, the Government of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Pakistan. Facing rising sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the government outlawed public meetings and rallies. The students of the University of Dhaka and other political activists defied the law and organised a protest on 21 February 1952. The movement reached its climax when police killed student demonstrators on that day. The deaths provoked widespread civil unrest led by the Awami Muslim League, later renamed the Awami League. After years of conflict, the central government relented and granted official status to the Bengali language in 1956. In 2000, UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day for the whole world to celebrate^[1], in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world.

The Language Movement catalysed the assertion of Bengali national identity in Pakistan, and became a forerunner to Bengali nationalist movements, including the 6-point movement and subsequently the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. In Bangladesh, 21 February is observed as Language Movement Day, a national holiday. The Shaheed Minar monument was constructed near Dhaka Medical College in memory of the movement and its victims.

Contents [hide] 1 Background 2 Early stages of the movement 2.1 Agitations of 1948 3 Events of 1952 3.1 21 February 3.2 22 February 3.3 Continued unrest 4 Events after 1952 4.1 United Front in 1954 4.2 Constitution reform 4.3 Liberation of Bangladesh 5 Legacy 6 Criticism 7 Citations 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

[edit] Background

The present nations of Pakistan and Bangladesh were part of undivided India during the British colonial rule. From the mid-19th century, the Urdu language had been promoted as the lingua franca of Indian Muslims by political and religious leaders such as Sir Khwaja Salimullah, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq.^[2][3] Urdu is an Indo-Aryan language of the Indo-Iranian branch, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. It developed under Persian, Arabic and Turkic influence on apabhramshas (last linguistic stage of the medieval Indian Aryan language Pali-Prakrit)^[4] in South Asia during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.^[5] With its Perso-Arabic script, the language was considered a vital element of the Islamic culture for Indian Muslims; Hindi and the Devanagari script were seen as fundamentals of Hindu culture.^[2]

While the use of Urdu grew common with Muslims in northern India, the Muslims of Bengal (a province in the eastern part of British India) primarily used the Bengali language. Bengali is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language that arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages around 1000 CE^[6] and developed considerably during the Bengal Renaissance. As early as the late 19th century, social activists such as the Muslim feminist Roquia Sakhawat Hussain were choosing to write in Bengali to reach out to the people and develop it as a modern literary language. Supporters of Bengali opposed Urdu even before the partition of India, when delegates from Bengal rejected the idea of making Urdu the lingua franca of Muslim India in the 1937 Lucknow session of the Muslim League. The Muslim League was a British Indian political party that became the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state separate from British India.^[7]

[edit] Early stages of the movement

Britain's holdings on the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: India, Burma (now Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, modern-day Bangladesh).

After the partition of India in 1947, Bengali-speaking people in East Pakistan (also known as East Bengal) made up 44 million of the newly formed Pakistan's 69 million people.^[8] Pakistan's government, civil services, and military, however, were dominated by West Pakistanis.^[9] In 1947, a key resolution at a national education summit in Karachi advocated Urdu as the sole state language, and its exclusive use in the media and in schools.^[10][11] Opposition and protests immediately arose. Students from Dhaka rallied under the leadership of Abul Kashem, the secretary of Tamaddun Majlish, a Bengali Islamic cultural organisation. The meeting stipulated Bengali as an official language of Pakistan and as a medium of education in East Pakistan.^[12] However, the Pakistan Public Service Commission removed Bengali from the list of approved subjects, as well as from currency notes and stamps. The central education minister Fazlur Rahman made extensive preparations to make Urdu the only state language of Pakistan.^[13] Public outrage spread, and a large number of Bengali students met on the University of Dhaka campus on 8 December 1947 to formally demand that Bengali be made an official language. To promote their cause, Bengali students organised processions and rallies in Dhaka.^[8]

Leading Bengali scholars argued why only Urdu should not be the state language. The linguist Muhammad Shahidullah pointed out that Urdu was not the native language of any part of Pakistan, and said, "If we have to choose a second state language, we should consider Urdu."^[14] The writer Abul Mansur Ahmed said if Urdu became the state language, the educated society of East Pakistan would become 'illiterate' and 'ineligible' for government positions.^[15] The first Rastrabhasa Sangram Parishad (National Language Action Committee), an organisation in favour of Bengali as a state language was formed towards the end of December 1947. Professor Nurul Huq Bhuiyan of the Tamaddun Majlish convened the committee.^[8][16] Later, Parliament member Shamsul Huq convened a new committee to push for Bengali as a state language. Assembly member Dhirendranath Datta proposed legislation in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan to allow members to speak in Bengali and authorise its use for official purposes.^[8] Datta's proposal was supported by legislators Prem Hari Burman, Bhupendra Kumar Datta and Sris Chandra Chattaopadhyaya of East Bengal, as well as the people from the region.^[8] Prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan and the Muslim League denounced the proposal as an attempt to divide the Pakistani people, thus the legislation was defeated.^[8][17]

[edit] Agitations of 1948

Rallies at the University of Dhaka area.

Students of the University of Dhaka and other colleges of the city organized a general strike in 11 March 1948 to protest the omission of Bengali language from official use, including coins, stamps and recruitment tests for the navy. The movement restated the demand that Bengali be declared an official language of Pakistan. Political leaders such as Shamsul Huq, Shawkat Ali, Kazi Golam Mahboob, Oli Ahad, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Abdul Wahed and others were arrested during the rallies. Rally leader Mohammad Toaha was hospitalised after attempting to snatch a rifle from a police officer. Student leaders, including Abdul Matin and Abdul Malek Ukil took part in the procession.^[8]

In the afternoon of 11 March, a meeting was held to protest police brutality and arrests. A group of students marching towards the chief minister Khawaja Nazimuddin's house was stopped in front of the Dhaka High Court. The rally changed its direction and moved in the direction of the Secretariat building. Police attacked the procession injuring several students and leaders including A. K. Fazlul Huq.^[18] Continuing strikes were observed from 12 March to 15 March. Under such circumstances, the chief minister Nazimuddin signed an accord with the student leaders agreeing to some of the terms and conditions, without complying to the demand that Bengali be made a state language.^[8]

In the height of civic unrest, Governor-General of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah arrived in Dhaka on 19 March 1948. On 21 March, at a civic reception at Racecourse Ground, he claimed that the language issue was designed by a "fifth column" to divide Pakistani Muslims.^{[19][20][21][22][23]} Jinnah further declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu" embodied the spirit of Muslim nations and would remain as the state language,^{[8][21][24][25]} labelling those who disagreed with his views as "Enemies of Pakistan". Jinnah delivered a similar speech at Curzon Hall of the University of Dhaka on 24 March.^[9] At both meetings, Jinnah was interrupted by large segments of the audience. He later called a meeting of a state language committee of action, and overruled the contract that was signed by Khawaja Nazimuddin with the student leaders.^[18] Before Jinnah left Dhaka on 28 March, he delivered a speech on radio reasserting his "Urdu-only" policy.^[26]

Shortly thereafter, the East Bengal Language Committee, presided by Maulana Akram Khan, was formed by the East Bengal government to prepare a report on the language problem.^[27] The Committee completed its report on 6 December 1950, but it was not published until 1958. The government suggested that Bengali be written in Arabic script, as a potential solution to the language conflict.^[28]

[edit] Events of 1952

Procession march held on 4 February 1952 at Nawabpur Road, Dhaka.

The Urdu-Bengali controversy was reignited when Jinnah's successor, governor-general Khawaja Nazimuddin, staunchly defended the "Urdu-only" policy in a speech on 27 January 1952.^[18] On 31 January, the Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod (All-Party Central Language Action Committee) was formed in a meeting at the Bar Library Hall of the University of Dhaka, chaired by Maulana Bhashani.^[8][29] The central government's proposal of writing the Bengali language in Arabic script was vehemently opposed at the meeting. The action committee called for an all out protest on 21 February, including strikes and rallies.^[18] Students of the University of Dhaka and other institutions gathered on the university premises on 4 February and warned the government to withdraw its proposal to write Bengali in Arabic script, and insisted on the recognition of Bengali. As the preparation for demonstrations was going on, government imposed Section 144 in the city of Dhaka, thereby banning any gatherings of more than four people.

[edit] 21 February

Meeting on the University of Dhaka premises on 21 February 1952

At nine o'clock in the morning, students began gathering on the University of Dhaka premises in defiance of Section 144. The university vice-chancellor and other officials were present as armed police surrounded the campus. By a quarter past eleven, students gathered at the university gate and attempted to break the police line. Police fired tear gas shells towards the gate to warn the students.^[8] A section of students ran into the Dhaka Medical College while others rallied towards the university premises cordoned by the police. The vice-chancellor asked police to stop firing and ordered the students to leave the area. However, the police arrested several students for violating section 144 as they attempted to leave. Enraged by the arrests, the students met around the East Bengal Legislative Assembly and blocked the legislators' way, asking them to present their insistence at the assembly. When a group of students sought to storm into the building, police opened fire and killed a number of students, including Abdus Salam, Rafiq Uddin Ahmed, Abul Barkat and Abdul Jabbar.^[8][30] As the news of the killings spread, disorder erupted across the city. Shops, offices and public transport were shut down and a general strike began.^[24] At the assembly, six legislators including Manoranjan Dhar, Boshontokumar Das, Shamsuddin Ahmed and Dhirendranath Datta requested that chief minister Nurul Amin visit wounded students in hospital and that the assembly be adjourned as a sign of mourning.^[31] This motion was supported by some of the treasury bench members including Maulana Abdur Rashid Tarkabagish, Shorfuddin Ahmed, Shamsuddin Ahmed Khondokar and Mosihuddin Ahmed.^[31] However Nurul Amin refused the requests.^[8][31]

[edit] 22 February

Disorder spread across the province as large processions ignored section 144 and condemned the actions of the police.^[18] More than 30,000 people congregated at Curzon Hall in Dhaka. During the continued protests, police actions led to the death of four more people. This prompted officers and clerks from different organizations, including colleges, banks and the radio station, to boycott offices and join the procession.^[24] Protesters burned the offices of two leading pro-government news agencies, the Jubilee Press and the Morning News.^[32] Police fired on a major janaza, or mourning rally, as it was passing through Nawabpur Road. The shooting killed several people including activist Sofiur Rahman and a nine-year old boy named Ohiullah.^[8][33]

[edit] Continued unrest

22 February rally after janaja at Dhaka Medical College on the University of Dhaka road, Dhaka.

Through the night of 23 February, students of Dhaka Medical College worked on the construction of a Shaheed Smritistombho, or Monument of Martyrs. Completed at dawn on 24 February, the monument had a handwritten note attached to it with the words "Shaheed Smritistombho".^[34] Inaugurated by the father of the slain activist Sofiur Rahman, the monument was destroyed on 26 February by police.^[35] On 25 February, industrial workers in the town of Narayanganj observed a general strike.^[36] A protest followed on 29 February whose participants faced severe police beating.^[37]

The government censored news reports and withheld exact casualty figures during the protests. Most pro-government media held Hindus and communists responsible for encouraging the disorder and student unrest.^[38] The families of Abul Barkat and Rafiq Uddin Ahmed tried to charge the police with murder, but the charges were dismissed by the police. An 8 April government report on the incidents failed to show any particular justification for police firings on the students.^[39] When the constituent assembly reconvened on 14 April, proceedings were stalled by members of the Muslim League when legislators from East Bengal sought to raise the language issue.^[40] On 16 April, the University of Dhaka reopened and the Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod, or All-Party Central Language Action Committee, held a seminar on 27 April at the Bar Association Hall. At the meeting delegates urged the government to release prisoners, relax restrictions on civil liberties and adopt Bengali as an official language.

[edit] Events after 1952

Foundation of the Shaheed Minar laid down in Dhaka by Abul Barkat's family members.

The Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod, with support from the Awami League, decided to commemorate 21 February as Shohid Dibosh (Martyrs' Day). On the first anniversary of the protests, people across East Pakistan wore black badges in solidarity with the victims. Most offices, banks and educational institutions were closed to observe the occasion. Student groups made agreements with college and police officials to preserve law and order. More than 100,000 people assembled at a public meeting held in Armanitola in Dhaka, where community leaders called for the immediate release of Maulana Bhashani and other political prisoners.^[8] However, West Pakistani politicians such as Fazlur Rahman aggravated sectional tensions by declaring that anyone who wanted Bengali to become an official language would be considered an "enemy of the state." Bengali students and civilians disobeyed the restrictions to celebrate the anniversary of the protests. Demonstrations broke out on the night of 21 February 1954 with various halls of the University of Dhaka raising black flags in mourning.^[41] Police arrested students and other protesters, who were released later despite refusing to post bail.

[edit] United Front in 1954

Political tensions came to a head as elections to the provincial assembly of East Bengal were held in 1954. The ruling Muslim League denounced the opposition United Front coalition, which—led by A. K. Fazlul Huq and the Awami League—wanted greater provincial autonomy. Several United Front leaders and activists were arrested.^[42] A meeting of parliament's Muslim League members, chaired by prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra, resolved to give official recognition to Bengali. This decision was followed by a major wave of unrest as other ethnic groups sought the recognition of other regional languages. Proponents of Urdu such as Maulvi Abdul Haq condemned any proposal to grant official status to Bengali. He led a rally of 100,000 people to protest against Muslim League's decision.^[43][44] Consequently, the implementation failed and the United Front won a vast majority of seats in the legislative assembly, while the representation of the Muslim League was reduced to a historic low.^[24][44]

The United Front ministry ordered the creation of the Bangla Academy to promote, develop, and preserve Bengali language, literature, and heritage.^[45] However, the United Front rule was temporary, as Governor General Ghulam Muhammad cancelled the government and started ruling under governor on 30 May 1954.^[42] United Front again formed the ministry on 6 June 1955 after the governor's regime ended. Awami League did not participate in this ministry though.^[46]

Following the return of the United Front to power, the anniversary on 21 February 1956 was observed for the first time in a peaceful atmosphere. Government supported a major project to construct a new Shaheed Minar. The session of the constituent assembly was stopped for five minutes to express condolence for the students slain in the police shootings. Major rallies were organised by Bengali leaders and all public offices and businesses remained closed.^[46][47]

[edit] Constitution reform

On 7 May 1954, the constituent assembly resolved, with the Muslim League's support, to grant official status to Bengali.^[44] Bengali was recognised as the second official language of Pakistan on 29 February 1956, and article 214(1) of the constitution of Pakistan was reworded to "The state language of Pakistan shall be Urdu and Bengali."

However, the military government formed by Ayub Khan made attempts to re-establish Urdu as the sole national language. On 6 January 1959, the military regime issued an official statement and reinstated the official stance of supporting the 1956 constitution's policy of two state languages.^[48]

[edit] Liberation of Bangladesh

Main article: Bangladesh Liberation War

Although the question of official languages was settled by 1956, the military regime of Ayub Khan promoted the interests of the Punjabi and Pashtun communities at the expense of Bengalis. Despite forming the majority of the national population, the Bengali community continued to be under-represented in the civil and military services, and received a minority of state funding and other government help. Facing extensive ethnic discrimination in West Pakistan, Bengalis grew increasingly alienated. Consequently, sectional divisions grew, and support for the Bengali nationalist Awami League,^[21] which invoked the spirit of the Language Movement was invoked in its 6-point movement for greater autonomy and democracy. One demand was that East Pakistan be called Bangladesh (Land of Bengal), which subsequently led to the Bangladesh Liberation War.^[3][9]

[edit] Legacy

See also: Artistic depictions of the Language Movement

Shaheed Minar, or the Martyr's monument, located near Dhaka Medical College

The Language Movement had a major cultural impact on Bengali society. It has inspired the development and celebration of the Bengali language, literature and culture. 21 February, celebrated as Language Movement Day or Shohid Dibosh (Martyrs' Day), is a major national holiday in Bangladesh. A month-long event called the Ekushey Book Fair is held every year to commemorate the movement. Ekushey Padak, one of the highest civilian awards in Bangladesh, is awarded annually in memory of the sacrifices of the movement.^[49] Songs such as Abdul Gaffar Choudhury's Amar Bhaier Rokte Rangano, set to music by Shaheed Altaf Mahmud, as well as plays, works of art and poetry played a considerable role in rousing the people's emotions during the movement.^[50] Since the events of February 1952, poems, songs, novels, plays, films, cartoons and paintings were created to capture the movement from varied point of views. Notable artistic depictions include the poems Bornomala, Amar Dukhini Bornomala and February 1969 by Shamsur Rahman, the film Jibon Theke Neya by Zahir Raihan, the stage play Kobor by Munier Chowdhury and the novels Ekushey February by Raihan and Artonaad by Shawkat Osman.^[51] Bangladesh officially sent a proposal to UNESCO to declare 21 February as "International Mother Language Day." The proposal was supported unanimously at the 30th General Conference of UNESCO held on 17 November 1999.^[52]

Two years after the first monument was destroyed by the police, a new Shaheed Minar (Monument of Martyrs) was constructed in 1954 to commemorate the protesters who lost their lives. Work on a larger monument designed by the architect Hamidur Rahman began in 1957 with the support of the United Front ministry. Hamidur Rahman's model consisted of a large complex in the yard of the Dhaka Medical College Hostel. The design included a half-circular column symbolizing a mother with her martyred sons standing at the dais in the center of the monument. Although the imposition of martial law in 1958 interrupted the work, the monument was completed and inaugurated on 21 February 1963 by Abul Barkat's mother, Hasina Begum. Pakistani forces demolished the monument during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, but the Bangladeshi government reconstructed it in 1973.^[53]

Outside East Pakistan, movement for equal status of Bengali also took place in the Indian state of Assam. On May 19, 1961, 11 Bengalis were killed in Police firing in Silchar Railway Station, Assam, while demanding state recognition of Bengali language. Subsequently, Bengali was given semi-official status in the three Bengali-majority districts of Assam.^[54]

[edit] Criticism

Although the Language Movement is considered to have laid the foundations for nationalism in East Pakistan, it also heightened the cultural animosity between the two wings of Pakistan.^[3][21][55] In West Pakistan, the movement was seen as a sectional uprising against Pakistani national interests.^[56] The rejection of the "Urdu-only" policy was seen as a contravention of the Perso-Arabic culture of Muslims and the founding ideology of Pakistan, the Two-Nation Theory.^[3] West Pakistani politicians considered Urdu a product of Indian Islamic culture, while they saw Bengali as a part of "Hinduized" Bengali culture.^[9] This provoked considerable opposition in West Pakistan.^[9] As late as in 1967, Ayub Khan said, "East Bengalis...still are under considerable Hindu culture and influence."^[9]

The Awami Muslim League turned over to Bengali nationalism after the Movement, and shed the word "Muslim" from its name.^[57] This nationalist approach of the party led to alienation of leaders such as Golam Azam who were supportive of the Muslim activism rather than the nationalist approach. The Language Movement inspired similar discontent for cultural rights and sectional autonomy in the provinces of Sindh, Balochistan and the North-West Frontier Province.^[3] The political unrest in East Pakistan and rivalry between the central government and the United Front-led provincial government was one of the main factors culminating in the 1958 military coup by Ayub Khan.^[24]

[edit] Citations

1. ^ Glassie, Henry and Mahmud, Feroz.2008.Living Traditions. Cultural Survey of Bangladesh Series-II. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Dhaka. p.578
2. ^ ^{a b} Upadhyay, R (2003-05-01). "Urdu Controversy - is dividing the nation further.". Papers. South Asia Analysis Group. http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/papers7/paper675.html. Retrieved 2008-02-20. 
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} Rahman, Tariq (1997). "The Medium of Instruction Controversy in Pakistan" (PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18 (2): 145–154. doi:10.1080/01434639708666310. ISSN 0143-4632. http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/018/0145/jmmd0180145.pdf. Retrieved 2007-06-21. 
4. ^ Halder, Shashwati. "Apabhrangsha". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://www.bpedia.org/A_0273.php. Retrieved 2007-07-08. 
5. ^ "A Historical Perspective of Urdu". National Council for Promotion of Urdu language. http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/pers_pp/index.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-15. 
6. ^ Bhattacharya, T (2001). "Bangla". in Gary, J. and Rubino, C. (Eds) (PDF). Encyclopedia of World's Languages: Past and Present (Facts About the World's Languages). New York: HW Wilson. ISBN 0824209702. http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~uclyara/bong_us.pdf. Retrieved 2007-06-20. 
7. ^ Rahman, Tariq (February 1997). "The Urdu-English Controversy in Pakistan". Modern Asian Studies 31 (1): 177–207. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00016978. ISSN 1469-8099. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199702%2931%3A1%3C177%3ATUCIP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X. Retrieved 2007-06-23. 
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o} "Language Movement" (PHP). Banglapedia - The National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://www.banglapedia.org/httpdocs/HT/L_0063.HTM. Retrieved 2007-02-06. 
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Oldenburg, Philip (August 1985). ""A Place Insufficiently Imagined": Language, Belief, and the Pakistan Crisis of 1971". The Journal of Asian Studies 44 (4): 711–733. doi:10.2307/2056443. ISSN 0021-9118. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118(198508)44%3A4%3C711%3A%22PIILB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C. Retrieved 2007-06-21. 
10. ^ Morning News, 7 December 1947 
11. ^ (in Bengali)The Azad (a daily newspaper) (Abul Kalam Shamsuddin, Dhaka), 11 December 1948 
12. ^ (Umar 1979, p. 35)
13. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 227–28)
14. ^ The Azad, 29 July 1947 
15. ^ (Umar 1979, pp. 30–32)
16. ^ (in Bengali) Ekusher Shongkolon '80. Dhaka: Bangla Academy. 1980. pp. 102–103. 
17. ^ Rahman, Hasan Hafizur (1982). Bangladesher Swadhinotajuddher Dolilpotro. Ministry of Information, People's Republic of Bangladesh. 
18. ^ ^{a b c d e} (Al Helal 2003, p. 263–265)
19. ^ Choudhury, G. W. (April 1972). "Bangladesh: Why It Happened". International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs) 48 (2): 242–249. doi:10.2307/2613440. ISSN 0020-5850. 
20. ^ (Umar 1979, p. 279)
21. ^ ^{a b c d} (Uddin 2006, pp. 3–16, 120–124)
22. ^ The Azad, 24 February 1948 
23. ^ R. Upadhyay (2007-04-07). "De-Pakistanisation of Bangladesh". Bangladesh Monitor, South Asia Analysis Group. http://www.saag.org/%5Cpapers22%5Cpaper2199.html. Retrieved 2007-06-16. 
24. ^ ^{a b c d e} James Heitzman and Robert Worden (eds), ed (1989). "Pakistan Period (1947–71)". Bangladesh: A Country Study. Government Printing Office, Country Studies US. ISBN 0160177200. http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/14.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-16. 
25. ^ Sayeed, Khalid Bin (September 1954). "Federalism and Pakistan". Far Eastern Survey 23 (9): 139–143. doi:10.1525/as.1954.23.9.01p0920l. ISSN 0362-8949. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0362-8949(195409)23%3A9%3C139%3AFAP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S. 
26. ^ (Umar 1979, p. 290)
27. ^ Mandal, Ranita (2002-06-24). "Chapter 4 : Other Activities". Muhammad Shahidullah & His Contribution To Bengali Linguistics. Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore, India. http://www.ciil-ebooks.net/html/benling/chapter4.html. Retrieved 2007-06-23. 
28. ^ The Azad, 24 May 1950 
29. ^ The Azad, 1 February 1952 
30. ^ "Dhaka Medical College Hostel Prangone Chatro Shomabesher Upor Policer Guliborshon. Bishwabidyalayer Tinjon Chatroshoho Char Bekti Nihoto O Shotero Bekti Ahoto" (in Bengali). The Azad. 22 February 1952. 
31. ^ ^{a b c} (Al Helal 2003, pp. 377–393)
32. ^ "Banglake Pakistaner Onnotomo Rashtrabhasa Korar Jonno Purbobongo Babostha Porishoder Shoparesh. Shukrobar Shohorer Obosthar Aaro Obonoti : Shorkar Kortrik Shamorik Bahini Tolob. Police O Shenader Gulite Charjon Nihoto O Shotadhik Ahoto : Shatghontar Jonno Curfew Jari. Shohidder Smritir Proti Sroddha Gyaponarthay Shotosfurto Hartal Palan" (in Bengali). The Azad. 23 February 1952. 
33. ^ (Al Helal 2003, p. 483)
34. ^ The Azad, 25 February 1952 
35. ^ The Daily Star, 27 February 1952 
36. ^ The Azad, 26 February 1952 
37. ^ (Umar 1979, pp. 417–418)
38. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 515–523)
39. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 546–552)
40. ^ The Azad, 20 March 1952 
41. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 604–609)
42. ^ ^{a b} (Al Helal 2003, pp. 600–603)
43. ^ The Azad, 22 April 1954 
44. ^ ^{a b c} "UF elections victory" (PHP). Chronicles of Pakistan. http://therepublicofrumi.com/54.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-16. 
45. ^ "Bangla Academy". Banglapedia: The National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/B_0134.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-05. 
46. ^ ^{a b} (Al Helal 2003, pp. 608–613)
47. ^ "Gambhirjopurno Poribeshay Shaheed Dibosh Utjapon" (in Bengali). Weekly Notun Khobor. 26 February 1956. 
48. ^ Lambert, Richard D. (April 1959). "Factors in Bengali Regionalism in Pakistan". Far Eastern Survey 28 (4): 49–58. doi:10.1525/as.1959.28.4.01p1259x. ISSN 0362-8949. 
49. ^ Khan, Sanjida. "National Awards". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/N_0081.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-23. 
50. ^ Aminzade, Ronald; Douglas McAdam, Charles Tilly (17 September 2001). "Emotions and Contentious Politics". Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 0521001552. http://books.google.com/books?id=h8PNEOZRRt8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=bangladesh+language+movement. Retrieved 2007-06-24. 
51. ^ Islam, Rafiqul (2000) (in Bengali). Amar Ekushey O Shaheed Minar. Dhaka: Poroma. pp. 62–85. ISBN 984-8245-39-1. 
52. ^ "International Mother Language Day - Background and Adoption of the Resolution". Government of Bangladesh. http://www.pmo.gov.bd/21february/imld_back.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-21. 
53. ^ Imam, Jahanara (1986) (in Bengali). Ekattorer Dingulee. Dhaka: Shondhani Prokashani. p. 44. ISBN 984-480-000-5. 
54. ^ Court route for language status , The Telegraph, May 20, 2008.
55. ^ "Bangladesh History". Discovery Bangladesh. http://www.discoverybangladesh.com/history.html. Retrieved 2007-06-21. 
56. ^ Rahman, Tariq (September 1997). "Language and Ethnicity in Pakistan". Asian Survey 37 (9): 833–839. doi:10.1525/as.1997.37.9.01p02786. ISSN 0004-4687. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-4687(199709)37%3A9%3C833%3ALAEIP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R. Retrieved 2007-06-21. 
57. ^ Lintner, Bertil (January 2004). "Chapter 17: Religious Extremism and Nationalism in Bangladesh". in eds Satu Limaye, Robert Wirsing, Mohan Malik (PDF). Religious Radicalism and Security in South Asia. Honolulu, Hawaii: Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies. p. 413. ISBN 0971941661. http://www.apcss.org/Publications/Edited%20Volumes/ReligiousRadicalism/PagesfromReligiousRadicalismandSecurityinSouthAsiach17.pdf. Retrieved 2007-06-28. 

[edit] References

• Al Helal, B (2003), Bhasha Andoloner Itihas (History of the Language Movement), Agamee Prakashani, Dhaka, ISBN 984-401-523-5  (Bengali)
• Uddin, Sufia M. (2006), Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807830216 
• Umar, B (1979), Purbo-Banglar Bhasha Andolon O Totkalin Rajniti, Agamee Prakashani, Dhaka  (Bengali)

[edit] Further reading

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• Badruddin Umar (2004). The Emergence of Bangladesh: Class Struggles in East Pakistan (1947-1958). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0195795714. 
• Anwar S. Dil (2000). Bengali language movement to Bangladesh. Ferozsons. ISBN 978-9690015778. 
• Robert S. Stern (2000). Democracy and Dictatorship in South Asia: Dominant Classes and Political Outcomes in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0275970413. 
• Syed Manzoorul Islam (1994). Essays on Ekushey: The Language Movement 1952. Bangla Academy. ISBN 984-07-2968-3. 

[edit] External links

• Bangla language movement
• The Makers of History: International Mother Language Day
• Language movement at BSS
• History of Bangladesh
• Language movement at Virtual Bangladesh
• Language movement at Banglapedia

[show] v • d • e Bengali Language Movement History and Events Bengali nationalism · Bengali Language Movement · Partition of India · 1947 Partition of Bengal · East Pakistan · Bengal · Constituent Assembly of Pakistan · Tamaddun Majlish · Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod · Rashtrabhasa Sangram Parishad · Role of political parties during Bengali Language Movement · Urdu movement People Abul Barkat · Abdul Jabbar · Sofiur Rahman · Abdus Salam · Rafiq Uddin Ahmed · Dhirendranath Datta · Khwaja Nazimuddin · Muhammad Ali Jinnah · Hamidur Rahman · Abul Kashem · Shamsul Huq · Nurul Huq Bhuiyan · Liaquat Ali Khan · Mohammad Toaha · Abdul Matin · Abdul Malek Ukil · A. K. Fazlul Huq · Maulana Bhashani · Oli Ahad · Abul Hashim · Shawkat Ali · Abul Kalam Shamsuddin · Kazi Golam Mahboob · Gaziul Haque · Muhammad Habibur Rahman · Mahbub Ul Alam Choudhury · Zahir Raihan · Abdul Latif · Altaf Mahmud · Muhammad Shahidullah · Nurul Amin · Ayub Khan · Maulana Abdur Rashid Tarkabagish · Sheikh Mujibur Rahman · Munier Chowdhury Commemoration Ekushey Book Fair · Shaheed Minar · Ekushey Padak · Language Movement Day · International Mother Language Day · Moder Gorob · Artistic depictions of the Bengali Language Movement · Amar Bhaier Rokte Rangano

[show] v • d • e Independence of Bangladesh History and events Bengali nationalism · Bengali freedom struggle · Partition of India · History of Pakistan · Awami League · Bengali Language Movement · Agartala Conspiracy Case · 6 Point Movement · 1970 Elections · This time the struggle is for our freedom · East Pakistan Rifles Mutiny · Operation Searchlight · Bangladesh Liberation War · Mujibnagar Government · Bangladesh War timeline · Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 · Battle of Garibpur · Clash over Boyra · Battle of Dhalai · Battle of Hilli · Battle of Kushtia · 1971 Bangladesh atrocities · History of Bangladesh Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibur Rahman · Syed Nazrul Islam · Tajuddin Ahmad · A. H. M. Qamaruzzaman · M. A. G. Osmani · Dhirendranath Datta · Ziaur Rahman · Khaled Mosharraf · M. Hamidullah Khan · Shafaat Jamil · Muhammad Mansur Ali · Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad · Matiur Rahman · Manjula Anwar · M A Hannan · Abu Sayeed Chowdhury · Awami League · Mukti Bahini · Mujibnagar · Mitro Bahini · Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra Pakistan Yahya Khan · Zulfikar Ali Bhutto · Nurul Amin · Shah Azizur Rahman · Golam Azam · Motiur Rahman Nizami · Jamaat-e-Islami · Pakistan Army · Tikka Khan · A. A. K. Niazi · Razakars · Al-Badr · Al-Shams India Indira Gandhi · Indian Army · Sam Manekshaw · Jagjit Singh Aurora

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_Language_Movement"

Categories: History of Bangladesh | History of Pakistan | Language activists | Bangladesh Awami League | Bengali language | Linguistic rights

Invasion of England, 1066

King Edward of England (called "The Confessor" because of his construction of Westminster Abbey) died on January 5, 1066, after a reign of 23 years. Leaving no heirs, Edward's passing ignited a three-way rivalry for the crown that culminated in the Battle of Hastings and the destruction of the Anglo-Saxon rule of England.

Harold Godwinson From the Bayeux Tapestey

The leading pretender was Harold Godwinson, the second most powerful man in England and an advisor to Edward. Harold and Edward became brothers-in-law when the king married Harold's sister. Harold's powerful position, his relationship to Edward and his esteem among his peers made him a logical successor to the throne. His claim was strengthened when the dying Edward supposedly uttered "Into Harold's hands I commit my Kingdom." With this kingly endorsement, the Witan (the council of royal advisors) unanimously selected Harold as King. His coronation took place the same day as Edward's burial. With the placing of the crown on his head, Harold's troubles began.

Across the English Channel, William, Duke of Normandy, also laid claim to the English throne. William justified his claim through his blood relationship with Edward (they were distant cousins) and by stating that some years earlier, Edward had designated him as his successor. To compound the issue, William asserted that the message in which Edward anointed him as the next King of England had been carried to him in 1064 by none other than Harold himself. In addition, (according to William) Harold had sworn on the relics of a martyred saint that he would support William's right to the throne. From William's perspective, when Harold donned the Crown he not only defied the wishes of Edward but had violated a sacred oath. He immediately prepared to invade England and destroy the upstart Harold. Harold's violation of his sacred oath enabled William to secure the support of the Pope who promptly excommunicated Harold, consigning him and his supporters to an eternity in Hell.

The third rival for the throne was Harald Hardrada, King of Norway. His justification was even more tenuous than William's. Hardrada ruled Norway jointly with his nephew Mangus until 1047 when Mangus conveniently died. Earlier (1042), Mangus had cut a deal with Harthacut the Danish ruler of England. Since neither ruler had a male heir, both promised their kingdom to the other in the event of his death. Harthacut died but Mangus was unable to follow up on his claim to the English throne because he was too busy battling for the rule of Denmark. Edward became the Anglo-Saxon ruler of England. Now with Mangus and Edward dead, Hardrada asserted that he, as Mangus's heir, was the rightful ruler of England. When he heard of Harold's coronation, Hardrada immediately prepared to invade England and crush the upstart.

The Invasions of England, 1066

Hardrada of Norway struck first. In mid September, Hardrada's invasion force landed on the Northern English coast, sacked a few coastal villages and headed towards the city of York. Hardrada was joined in his effort by Tostig, King Harold's nere-do-well brother. The Viking army overwhelmed an English force blocking the York road and captured the city. In London, news of the invasion sent King Harold hurriedly north at the head of his army picking up reinforcements along the way. The speed of Harold's forced march allowed him to surprise Hardrada's army on September 25, as it camped at Stamford Bridge outside York. A fierce battle followed. Hand to hand combat ebbed and flowed across the bridge. Finally the Norsemen's line broke and the real slaughter began. Hardrada fell and then the King's brother, Tostig. What remained of the Viking army fled to their ships. So devastating was the Viking defeat that only 24 of the invasion force's original 240 ships made the trip back home. Resting after his victory, Harold received word of William's landing near Hastings.

Construction of the Norman invasion fleet had been completed in July and all was ready for the Channel crossing. Unfortunately, William's ships could not penetrate an uncooperative north wind and for six weeks he languished on the Norman shore. Finally, on September 27, after parading the relics of St. Valery at the water's edge, the winds shifted to the south and the fleet set sail. The Normans made landfall on the English coast near Pevensey and marched to Hastings.

Harold rushed his army south and planted his battle standards atop a knoll some five miles from Hastings. During the early morning of the next day, October 14, Harold's army watched as a long column of Norman warriors marched to the base of the hill and formed a battle line. Separated by a few hundred yards, the lines of the two armies traded taunts and insults. At a signal, the Norman archers took their position at the front of the line. The English at the top of the hill responded by raising their shields above their heads forming a shield-wall to protect them from the rain of arrows. The battle was joined.

The English fought defensively while the Normans infantry and cavalry repeatedly charged their shield-wall. As the combat slogged on for the better part of the day, the battle's outcome was in question. Finally, as evening approached, the English line gave way and the Normans rushed their enemy with a vengeance. King Harold fell as did the majority of the Saxon aristocracy. William's victory was complete. On Christmas day 1066, William was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey.

The Bayeux Tapestry

The Bayeux Tapestry (actually an embroidery measuring over 230 feet long and 20 inches wide) describes the Norman invasion of England and the events that led up to it. It is believed that the Tapestry was commissioned by Bishop Odo, bishop of Bayeux and the half-brother of William the Conqueror. The Tapestry contains hundreds of images divided into scenes each describing a particular event. The scenes are joined into a linear sequence allowing the viewer to "read" the entire story starting with the first scene and progressing to the last. The Tapestry would probably have been displayed in a church for public view.

History is written by the victors and the Tapestry is above all a Norman document. In a time when the vast majority of the population was illiterate, the Tapestry's images were designed to tell the story of the conquest of England from the Norman perspective. It focuses on the story of William, making no mention of Hardrada of Norway nor of Harold's victory at Stamford Bridge. The following are some excerpts taken from this extraordinary document.

King Edward sends Harold on a Mission

King Edward sends Harold on a mission

The Tapestry's story begins in 1064. King Edward, who has no heirs, has decided that William of Normandy will succeed him. Having made his decision; Edward calls upon Harold to deliver the message.

This at any rate, is the Norman interpretation of events for King Edward's selection of William is critical to the legitimacy of William's later claim to the English crown. It is also important that Harold deliver the message, as the tapestry explains in later scenes.

In this scene King Edward leans forward entrusting Harold with his message. Harold immediately sets out on his fateful journey.

Harold Swears an Oath to William

Pursuing his mission, the Tapestry describes how Harold crosses the English Channel to Normandy, is held hostage by a Norman count and is finally rescued by William.

Harold swears an oath

Harold ends up in William's castle at Bayeux on the Norman coast where he supposedly delivers the message from King Edward. At this point the Tapestry describes a critical event. Having received the message that Edward has anointed him as his successor; William calls upon Harold to swear an oath of allegiance to him and to his right to the throne. The Tapestry shows Harold, both hands placed upon religious relics enclosed in two shrines, swearing his oath as William looks on. The onlookers, including William, point to the event to add further emphasis. One observer (far right) places his hand over his heart to underscore the sacredness of Harold's action. Although William is seated, he appears larger in size than Harold. The disproportion emphasizes Harold's inferior status to William. The Latin inscription reads "Where Harold took an oath to Duke William."

Continued... "The Death and Burial of Edward the Confessor"
http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/bayeux.htm

Welcome to History UK - the History of England!

The  Great Plague 1665

In two successive years of the 17th century London suffered two terrible disasters.  In the spring and summer of 1665 an outbreak of Bubonic Plague spread from parish to parish until thousands had died and the huge pits dug to receive the bodies were full.  In 1666 the Great Fire of London destroyed much of the centre of London but also killed off most of the black rats and fleas that carried the plague bacillus. Bubonic Plague was known as the Black Death and had been known in England for centuries.  It was a ghastly disease.  The victim's skin turned black in patches and inflamed glands or 'buboes' in the groin combined with compulsive vomiting, swollen tongue and splitting headaches made it a horrible, agonizing killer. The plague started in the East, possibly China, and quickly spread through Europe. Whole communities were wiped out and corpses littered the streets as there was no one left to bury them.  It began in London in the poor, overcrowded parish of St. Giles-in-the-Field.  It started slowly at first but by May of 1665, 43 had died.  In June 6137 people died, in July 17036  and at its peak in August, 31159 people died.  In all, 15% of the population perished during that terrible summer. Incubation took a mere four to six days and when the plague appeared in a household, the house was sealed, thus condemning the whole family to death!  These houses were distinguished by a painted red cross on the door and the words, 'Lord have mercy on us'.  At night the corpses were brought out in answer to the cry,' Bring out your dead', put in a  cart and taken away to the plague pits.  One called the Great Pit was at Aldgate in London and another at Finsbury Fields. The King, Charles II and his Court left London and fled to Oxford.  Those people who could, sent their families away from London during these months, but the poor had no recourse but to stay. Samuel Pepys in his Diary gives a vivid account of the empty streets in London, as all who could had left in an attempt to flee the pestilence. It was believed that holding a posy of flowers to the nose kept away the plague and to this day judges are still given a nose-gay to carry on ceremonial occasions as a protection against the plague! A song about the plague is still sung by children today. 'Ring-a-ring of roses' describes in great detail the symptoms of the plague, and ends with 'All fall down'.  The last word, 'dead', is omitted today. The plague spread to many parts of England.  York was one city badly affected. The plague victims were buried outside the city walls and it is said that they have never been disturbed since then, as a precaution against a resurgence of the dreaded plague.  The grassy embankments below the walls that can be seen as York is approached, are the sites of these plague pits. The Plague Window, Eyam Church A small village in Derbyshire called Eyam, 6 miles north of Bakewell, has a story of tragedy and courage that will always be remembered. In 1665 a box of laundry was brought to Eyam by a traveller.  The laundry was found to be infested with fleas, and the epidemic started!  80% of the people died here and there could have been a terrible outbreak in Derbyshire had the village not had a courageous rector called William Mompesson.  He persuaded the villagers not to flee the village and so spread the infection, but to stay until the plague had run its course.  His wife was one of the many victims and her tomb can be seen in Eyam churchyard. Catherine Mompesson's Tomb, Eyam Mompesson preached in the open air during the time of the plague, on a rock in a dell, now called Cucklett Church.  Every year a Commemorative Service is held on the last Sunday in August in the dell where he preached.  During their 'siege' the villagers dropped money for provisions into a well so as not to spread the infection on the coins. Mompesson's Well In some towns and villages in England there are still the old market crosses which have a depression at the foot of the stone cross.  This was filled with vinegar during times of plague as it was believed that vinegar would kill any germs on the coins and so contain the disease. The plague lasted in London until the late Autumn when the colder weather helped kill off the fleas. Over the centuries Bubonic Plague has broken out in Europe and the Far East.  In 1900 there were outbreaks of plague in places as far apart as Portugal and Australia. Influenza seems to be the modern form of plague.  At the end of World War One an influenza outbreak circled the world during 1918 - 1919.  Within a year 20 million people had died world-wide. . © E.P.C

Useful links:

Eyam Museum, Hawkhill Road, Eyam, Derbyshire  Tel:  01433  631 371 (Closed Nov - March)
http://www.eyammuseum.demon.co.uk/

More British History
History of England - History of Scotland - History of Wales

List of endangered languages in Asia

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This is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

An endangered language is a language that it is at risk of falling out of use, generally because it has few surviving speakers. If it loses all of its native speakers, it becomes an extinct language.

Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent.

Contents [hide] 1 Afghanistan 2 Cambodia 3 Caucasus 4 China 5 India 6 Indonesia 6.1 Kalimantan 6.2 Maluku 6.3 Papua 6.4 Sumatra 7 Iran 8 Israel 9 Japan 10 Laos 11 Malaysia 11.1 Peninsular Malaysia 11.2 Sarawak 12 Nepal 13 Oman 14 Philippines 15 Russia (Asia) 16 Sri Lanka 17 Taiwan 18 Tajikistan 19 Thailand 20 Uzbekistan 21 Vietnam 22 Yemen

[edit] Afghanistan

Afghanistan
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Askunu language				ask	Askunu language
Kalasha-ala language				wbk	Kalasha-ala language
Mogholi language			Red Book	mhj	Mogholi language
Rushani language			Red Book	none	Rushani language
Tirahi language		100 Possibly 5,000.	Ethnologue	tra	Tirahi language
Tregami language				trm	Tregami language
Vasi-vari language		100 Possibly 5,000.	Ethnologue	prn	Prasuni language

[edit] Cambodia

Cambodia
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Chong language	Also found in Thailand	5,500	Red Book	cog	Chong language

[edit] Caucasus

Caucasus
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Archi language			Red Book	aqc	Archi language
Bats language			Red Book	bbl	Bats language
Budukh language			Red Book	bdk	Budukh language
Ghodoberi language			Red Book	gdo	Ghodoberi language
Hinukh language			Red Book	gin	Hinukh language
Hunzib language			Red Book	huz	Hunzib language
Khinalug language			Red Book	none	Khinalug language
Khwarshi language		3,000 (2006)	Red Book	none	Khwarshi language
Kryts language			Red Book	kry	Kryts language
Svan language			Red Book	sva	Svan language
Tindi language			Red Book	tin	Tindi language
Udi language			Red Book	udi	Udi language

[edit] China

China
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Ejnu language			Red Book	none	Ejnu language
Macanese language	Macau			mzs	Macanese language
Manchu language		60	Red Book	mnc	Manchu language
Sarikoli language			Red Book	srh	Sarikoli language

[edit] India

India
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Aka-Jeru creole		24 (2000 Verma).	Ethnologue	apq	Aka-Jeru language
Khamyang language		50 (2003).	Ethnologue	ksu	Khamyang language
Parenga language		767 (2002).	Ethnologue	pcj	Parenga language
Ruga language			Ethnologue	ruh	Ruga language
Shompen language(s)					Shompen language

[edit] Indonesia

[edit] Kalimantan

Indonesia (Kalimantan)
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Lengilu language		3 to 4 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	lgi	Lengilu language

[edit] Maluku

Indonesia (Maluku)
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Amahai language		50 (1987 SIL).	Ethnologue	amq	Amahai language
Hoti language		10 (1987 SIL).	Ethnologue	hti	Hoti language
Hukumina language		1 (1989 SIL).	Ethnologue	huw	Hukumina language
Hulung language		10 (1991 SIL).	Ethnologue	huk	Hulung language
Ibu language		35 (1987 Voorhoeve and Visser) 50 to 200 in the ethnic group (1984).	Ethnologue	ibu	Ibu language
Kamarian language		10 (1987 SIL) 6,000 in the village (1987 SIL).	Ethnologue	kzx	Kamarian language
Kayeli language		3 (1995)Not used for 3 decades by the speakers (1989 C Grimes SIL) 800 (1995).	Ethnologue	kzl	Kayeli language
Loun language		20.	Ethnologue	lox	Loun language
Naka'ela language		5 (1985 SIL).	Ethnologue	nae	Naka'ela language
Nusa Laut language		10 2,226 (1989 SIL).	Ethnologue	nul	Nusa Laut language
Paulohi language		50 (1982).	Ethnologue	plh	Paulohi language
Piru language		10 (1985 Y Taguchi SIL).	Ethnologue	ppr	Piru language

[edit] Papua

Indonesia (Papua)
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Bonerif language		4 (1994 SIL).	Ethnologue	bnv	Bonerif language
Burumakok language		40 (1994 Kroneman).	Ethnologue	aip	Burumakok language
Duriankere language		30 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	dbn	Duriankere language
Dusner language		20 (2000).	Ethnologue	dsn	Dusner language
Kanum, BA?di language		10 (1996 Mark Donohue).	Ethnologue	khd	Kanum, BA?di language
Kapori language		30 to 40 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	khp	Kapori language
Kehu language		25 (2002 SIL).	Ethnologue	khh	Kehu language
Kembra language		20 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	xkw	Kembra language
Kwerisa language		15 to 50 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	kkb	Kwerisa language
Mander language		20 (1991 SIL).	Ethnologue	mqr	Mander language
Mapia language		1.	Ethnologue	mpy	Mapia language
Maremgi language		40 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	mrx	Maremgi language
Massep language		25 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	mvs	Massep language
Mor language		20 to 30 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	moq	Mor language
Saponi language		4 to 5 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	spi	Saponi language
Tandia language		2 (1991 SIL).	Ethnologue	tni	Tandia language
Usku language		20 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	ulf	Usku language
Woria language		5 to 6 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	wor	Woria language

[edit] Sumatra

Indonesia (Sumatra)
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Lom language		2 to 10 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	mfb	Lom language

[edit] Iran

Iran
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Abduyi dialect				none	none
Davani dialect				none	none
Gilaki Language				none	none

[edit] Israel

Israel
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic language		20 (2004 Mutzafi).	Ethnologue	bjf	Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic language
Yevanic language		35 in Israel There were a few semispeakers left in 1987 and may be none now Population total all countries: 50.	Ethnologue	yej	Yevanic language

[edit] Japan

Japan
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Ainu language		15 in Russia (1996 Alexander Vovin) ~100s in Japan.	Ethnologue		Ainu language
Amami language
Hachijo language
Kunigami language
Miyako language
Okinawa language
Yaeyama language
Yonaguni language

[edit] Laos

Laos
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Arem language		20 in Laos 500 (1995).	Ethnologue	aem	Arem language

[edit] Malaysia

[edit] Peninsular Malaysia

Malaysia (Peninsular)
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Mintil language		40 (1975 SIL).	Ethnologue	mzt	Mintil language
Orang Kanaq language		34 (1981 Wurm and Hattori).	Ethnologue	orn	Orang Kanaq language

Malaysia
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Papia-kristang language			Red Book	cpp	Papia-kristang language

[edit] Sarawak

Malaysia (Sarawak)
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Punan Batu 1 language		30 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	pnm	Punan Batu 1 language

[edit] Nepal

Nepal
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Chintang language			Ethnologue	ctn	Chintang language
Chukwa language		100 (1991 W Winter).	Ethnologue	cuw	Chukwa language
Dumi language		3 (2000 Van Driem) 1,000 to 2,000 (1991 W Winter).	Ethnologue	dus	Dumi language
Lingkhim language		1 (1991 W Winter).	Ethnologue	lii	Lingkhim language
Pongyong language			Ethnologue	pgy	Pongyong language
Saam language		23 (2001 census).	Ethnologue	raq	Saam language

[edit] Oman

Oman
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Harsusi language			Ethnologue	hss	Harsusi language

[edit] Philippines

Philippines
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Alabat Island Agta language	see Bikol languages	30 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	dul	Agta, Alabat Island language
Isarog Agta language	see Bikol languages	5 to 6 (2000 Wurm) 1,000 (1984 SIL).	Ethnologue	agk	Agta, Isarog language
Northern Alta language			Red Book	phi	Alta, Northern
Arta language		15 (2000 Wurm)Population includes 12 in Villa Santiago, 1 in Villa Gracia, 3 or 4 in Nagtipunan (1992 L Reid).	Ethnologue	atz	Arta language
Ata language		2 to 5 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	atm	Ata language
Atta-faire language			Red Book	none	Atta-faire language
Ayta-bataan language			Red Book	none	Ayta-bataan language
Ayta, Sorsogon language		15 to 20 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	ays	Ayta, Sorsogon language
Ratagnon language		2 to 3 (2000 Wurm) 2,000 (1997 SIL).	Ethnologue	btn	Ratagnon language

[edit] Russia (Asia)

Russia (Asia)
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Ainu language			Ethnologue		Ainu language
Mednyj Aleut language	see Aleut language	10 (1995 M Krauss).	Ethnologue	mud	Aleut, Mednyj language
Chukchi language			Ethnologue	ckt	Chukchi language
Chulym language			Ethnologue	clw	Chulym language
Forest Enets language	see Enets language	40 (1995 M Krauss) 209 with Tundra Enets (1989 census).	Ethnologue	enf	Enets, Forest language
Tundra Enets language	see Enets language	30 (1995 M Krauss) 209 together with Forest Enets (1990 census).	Ethnologue	enh	Enets, Tundra language
Karagas language		25 to 30 (2001) 730 (1989 census).	Ethnologue	kim	Karagas language
Kerek language		2 (1997 M Krauss)There were 200 to 400 speakers in 1900 400.	Ethnologue	krk	Kerek language
Ket language	The last Ieniseian language	550 to 990 (1995 M. Krauss).	Ethnologue	ket	Kerek language
Orok language	see Oroks	30 to 82 in Russia (1995 M Krauss)Population total all countries: 33 to 85 250 to 300 (1995 M Krauss).	Ethnologue	oaa	Orok language
Udihe language		100 (1991 Kibrik) 1,600 (1991 Kibrik).	Ethnologue	ude	Udihe language
Ulch language	Siberia		Ethnologue	ulc	Ulch language
Yugh language		2 or 3 (1991 G K Verner in Kibrik)Nonfluent speakers 10 to 15 (1991 G K Verner in Kibrik).	Ethnologue	yuu	Yugh language
Northern Yukaghir language	see Yukaghir languages	30 to 150 (1995 M Krauss, 1989 census) 230 to 1,100 (1995 M Krauss, 1989 census).	Ethnologue	ykg	Yukaghir, Northern language
Southern Yukaghir language	see Yukaghir languages	10 to 50 (1995 M Krauss, 1989 census) 130 (1995 M Krauss, 1989 census).	Ethnologue	yux	Yukaghir, Southern language

[edit] Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Veddah Language		300 (1993 SIL).	Ethnologue	ved	Veddah language
Sri Lanka Malay		50,000(1986 Hussainmiya, Prentice 1994:411).	Ethnologue	sci	Sri Lankan Creole Malay language

[edit] Taiwan

Taiwan
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Amis, Nataoran language	Commonly considered a dialect of Amis.	5 (2000 Wurm).	Ethnologue	ais	Amis, Nataoran language
Babuza language		3 to 4 (2000 S Wurm).	Ethnologue	bzg	Babuza language
Kanakanabu language		6 to 8 (2000 Wurm) 250 (UNESCO).	Ethnologue	xnb	Kanakanabu language
Kavalan language		24 (2000 Li).	Ethnologue	ckv	Kavalan language
Kulon-Pazeh language		1 (2000 Paul Jen-Kuei Li).	Ethnologue	uun	Kulon-Pazeh language
Saaroa language		5 to 6 (2000 Wurm) 300 (2000 UNESCO Red Book).	Ethnologue	sxr	Saaroa language
Saisiyat language			Red Book	xsy	Saisiyat language
Thao language		5 to 6 (2000 Wurm) 248 (1989).	Ethnologue	ssf	Thao language

[edit] Tajikistan

Tajikistan
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Bartangi language			Red Book	none	Bartangi language
Ishkashimi language			Red Book	ira	Ishkashkimi language
Oroshani language	see Pamir languages see Shughni language		Red Book	sgh	Oroshani language
Yaghnobi language			Red Book	yai	Yaghnobi language
Yazgulami language			Red Book	yah	Yazgulami language

[edit] Thailand

Thailand
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Mok language		7 (1981 Wurm and Hattori).	Ethnologue	mqt	Mok language

[edit] Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Judeo-Crimean Tatar language			Ethnologue	jct	Judeo-Crimean Tatar language

[edit] Vietnam

Vietnam
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Arem language	see Chut people	20 in Viet Nam (1996 Ferlus) Population total all countries: 40 100 in Viet Nam (1996 Ferlus)	Ethnologue	aem	Arem language
Gelao, Red language	see Gelao language (distinct ISO 639-3 code)	20	Ethnologue	gir	Gelao, Red language
Gelao, White language	see Gelao language (distinct ISO 639-3 code)	20 (2002 Edmondson).	Ethnologue	giw	Gelao, White language

[edit] Yemen

Yemen
Language	Comments	Speakers	Source	ISO 639-3	Ethnologue entry
Bathari language	Also in Oman		Ethnologue	bhm	Bathari language

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Categories: Endangered languages | Lists of languages | Asia-related lists